Wound Ballistics: Basics and Applications

Preface to the second edition
From the Preface of the 1st edition
Outline of contents
Detailed table of contents
Table of symbols
Relationships
Prefix symbols for decimal multiples and submultiples of SIunits
Conversions
1 Introduction
2 Basics
2.1 The physics of wound ballistics
2.1.1 Preliminary remarks
2.1.2 Coordinates, systems of units and notation
2.1.3 Mechanics
2.1.3.1 Kinematics
2.1.3.2 Mass, momentum and force
2.1.3.3 Work and energy
2.1.3.4 Rotation
2.1.3.5 Laws of conservation of mass, energy and momentum
2.1.3.6 Equations of motion
2.1.4 Fluid dynamics
2.1.4.1 General
2.1.4.2 Basic concepts in thermodynamics
2.1.4.3 Material characteristics
2.1.4.4 Frictionless flow
2.1.4.5 Flow of a viscous fluid
2.1.5 Fluid jets
2.1.5.1 General
2.1.5.2 Exhaust flow from a muzzle
2.1.5.3 De Laval nozzles (converging-diverging nozzles)
2.1.5.4 Jet velocity and energy
2.1.6 Measuring techniques for wound ballistics
2.1.6.1 General
2.1.6.2 Dynamic phenomena
2.1.6.3 Physical values
2.2 Ammunition and weapons
2.2.1 Introduction
2.2.2 Ammunition
2.2.2.1 The structure of a cartridge
2.2.2.2 Types of ammunition
2.2.2.3 Blank and irritant rounds.
2.2.2.4 Fragmenting ammunition
2.2.3 Weapons
2.2.3.1 Firearm design and typology
2.2.3.2 Handguns
2.2.3.3 Long weapons
2.2.3.4 Alarm pistols and revolvers
2.3 Ballistics
2.3.1 Definitions
2.3.2 Interior ballistics
2.3.2.1 General
2.3.2.2 Powder combustion
2.3.2.3 The firing sequence
2.3.2.4 Interior ballistics calculations
2.3.2.5 Energy balance
2.3.3 Muzzle phenomena
2.3.3.1 Muzzle gas flow
2.3.3.2 Flash
2.3.4 Exterior ballistics
2.3.4.1 General; terms used
2.3.4.2 Exterior ballistics calculations
2.3.4.3 Ballistics tables
2.3.4.4 Proper motion of a bullet
2.3.4.5 Disturbances to the trajectory
2.3.5 Stability and tractability
2.3.5.1 Definition of stability
2.3.5.2 Spin-stabilized projectiles
2.3.5.3 Projectiles stabilized by air forces
2.3.5.4 Shoulder stabilization
2.3.5.5 Tractability
2.3.5.6 Stability and ricochets
2.3.6 Fragment ballistics
2.3.6.1 Acceleration of fragments
2.3.6.2 Exterior ballistics of fragments
2.3.7 Terminal ballistics models
2.3.7.1 General
2.3.7.2 The plugging model
2.3.7.3 The displacement model (ductile failure)
2.3.7.4 Bullet passing through a thin layer of material
3 General wound ballistics
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 General
3.1.2 The history of wound ballistics
3.1.3 Basic relationships
3.2 Processes in the wound channel; the temporary cavity
3.2.1 Preliminary remarks
3.2.1.1 The concept of the “temporary cavity”
3.2.1.2 Different ways of looking at wounding
3.2.1.3 Modelling wound ballistics processes
3.2.2 Motion and behaviour of a bullet
3.2.2.1 Rifle bullets
3.2.2.2 Handgun bullets
3.2.2.3 Fragments and fragment-like projectiles
3.2.2.4 Possible types of wound channel.
3.2.2.5 Physical models
3.2.3 The temporary cavity
3.2.3.1 Phenomenology of the temporary cavity
3.2.3.2 Quantitative description of the temporary cavity
3.2.3.3 Influence of impact conditions and bullet characteristics
3.2.3.4 The effect of the sectional density of a bullet on the shape of the temporary cavity
3.2.4 The effect of bullet design on behaviour
3.2.4.1 Categories of bullet
3.2.4.2 Deformation and fragmentation; general points
3.2.4.3 Experimental results
3.2.5 Patterns in bullet wounds to bones
3.2.6 Bullet temperature and sterility
3.2.6.1 Historical background
3.2.6.2 Bullet temperature
3.2.6.3 Bullets contaminated with bacteria
3.2.6.4 Burns due to bullets
3.3 Simulants
3.3.1 General
3.3.2 Gelatine
3.3.2.1 Characteristics and fabrication
3.3.2.2 Fabrication of gelatine blocks; preparation for experiments
3.3.2.3 Evaluating gelatine experiments
3.3.3 Glycerine soap (ballistic soap)
3.3.3.1 Characteristics and fabrication
3.3.3.2 Ageing
3.3.3.3 Evaluating soap experiments
3.3.3.4 Using soap to conduct measurements
3.3.4 Comparison between soap and gelatine
3.3.4.1 General
3.3.4.2 Availability, handling and measuring techniques
3.3.4.3 Reaction to bullets
3.3.4.4 Which simulant for which purpose?
3.3.4.5 Connection between the analysis methods
3.3.5 Bone
3.3.5.1 General
3.3.5.2 Hollow bones
3.3.5.3 Modelling the head
3.3.5.4 Literature regarding synthetic bones
3.3.6 Other simulants
3.4 Other approaches to simulation
3.4.1 Experiments on animals and cadavers
3.4.1.1 Animals
3.4.1.2 Cadavers
3.4.1.3 Cell cultures
3.4.2 Physical/mathematical models
3.4.2.1 General
3.4.2.2 SELLIER’s velocity profiles
3.4.2.3 Computer Man
3.4.2.4 The “Verwundungsmodell Schütze” (VeMo-S)
4 Wound ballistics of bullets and fragments
4.1 The effectiveness of bullets
4.1.1 Effectiveness versus effect
4.1.1.1 Definitions
4.1.1.2 Factors that contribute to the effect of a bullet
4.1.2 Measures of effectiveness
4.1.2.1 Historical background
4.1.2.2 The “stopping power” fallacy
4.1.2.3 Traditional measures of effectiveness
4.1.2.4 Summary and conclusions
4.1.3 Determining the wounding potential of a bullet
4.1.3.1 Definition of the wounding potential
4.1.3.2 Measuring the wounding potential
4.1.4 Military effectiveness criteria
4.1.4.1 Definitions of effectiveness
4.1.4.2 Probability of incapacitation
4.2 Wound ballistics of handgun bullets
4.2.1 Penetration depth of handgun bullets and ability to pass through gelatine, soap, muscle and bone
4.2.1.1 General
4.2.1.2 Penetration depth in gelatine, soap and muscle
4.2.1.3 Penetration capacity in bone
4.2.1.4 Threshold velocities for eyes
4.2.2 Characteristics of handgun bullets
4.2.2.1 General
4.2.2.2 Bullets with good penetration properties
4.2.2.3 Bullets designed for maximum wounding potential
4.2.2.4 Police Bullets
4.2.2.5 Unconventional bullet designs
4.2.3 Gas and fluid jets as projectiles
4.2.3.1 General
4.2.3.2 Liquid jets
4.2.3.3 Gas jets
4.2.3.4 The effects of gas jets in the case of gas and alarm pistols
4.3 Wound ballistics of rifle bullets
4.3.1 Introduction
4.3.2 Remote effects
4.3.2.1 General
4.3.2.2 Shock waves
4.3.2.3 Biological/pathological consequences of shock waves
4.3.2.4 Pressure changes in blood vessels
4.3.2.5 The effects of pressure pulses on blood vessels
4.3.2.6 Bone fractures at locations remote from the wound channel
4.3.3 Non-expanding rifle bullets
4.3.3.1 Bullets designed for military use
4.3.3.2 The influence of the weapon
4.3.3.3 Shot and slugs
4.3.4 Expanding rifle bullets, hunting bullets
4.3.4.1 The wounding potential of hunting bullets
4.3.4.2 Lead-free hunting bullets
4.4 Wound ballistics of fragments
4.4.1 General
4.4.1.1 Frequency of fragment wounds
4.4.1.2 Wounds caused by fragments and similar projectiles
4.4.2 Equations of motion and energy for fragments
4.4.2.1 Hypotheses
4.4.2.2 The geometrical form of the wound channel
4.4.2.3 Equation of energy and motion
4.4.2.4 Entry wound diameter and penetration depth
4.4.3 Experimental verification of the models
4.4.3.1 Method
4.4.3.2 Entry wound diameter
4.4.3.3 Penetration depth
4.4.3.4 Comparison with other studies
4.4.3.5 Applications
4.5 “Non-lethal” projectiles
4.5.1 General
4.5.2 Projectile design
4.5.2.1 Projectiles with low sectional density
4.5.2.2 Expanding bullets
4.5.2.3 Rubber shot
4.5.2.4 Special projectiles for handguns
4.5.3 Wound ballistics of “non-lethal” projectiles
4.5.3.1 Penetrating projectiles
4.5.3.2 Non-penetrating projectiles
4.5.4 Dangerosity of projectiles
4.5.4.1 Criteria of dangerosity
4.5.4.2 Determining hazard areas
4.5.4.3 Danger area for persons wearing protective equipment
5 Wound ballistics and forensic medicine
5.1 Conventional forensic medicine
5.1.1 General
5.1.2 Crime-scene investigation
5.1.2.1 Bullet damage at the crime scene
5.1.2.2 Examination of the body at the scene
5.1.2.3 Bloodstain pattern analysis
5.1.3 Morphology of entry and exit wounds
5.1.3.1 Entry wounds
5.1.3.2 Exit wounds
5.1.3.3 Grazing shots
5.1.3.4 Indicators of muzzle-target distance
5.1.4 The wound channel
5.1.4.1 Wound morphology
5.1.4.2 The relationship between the wound channel and the direction of shot
5.1.5 Bullet wounds to the head
5.1.5.1 Brain injuries
5.1.5.2 Skull injuries
5.1.6 Bullet wounds to the trunk
5.1.6.1 The ribcage
5.1.6.2 Abdomen
5.1.7 Bullet wounds to bones
5.1.7.1 General
5.1.7.2 Flat bones
5.1.7.3 Long hollow bones
5.1.7.4 Vertebrae
5.1.8 Peculiarities of shotgun wounds
5.1.8.1 General
5.1.8.2 Morphology of entry wounds
5.1.8.3 Internal morphology of shotgun wounds
5.1.9 Causes of death and incapacitation
5.1.9.1 Causes of death
5.1.9.2 Incapacitation
5.1.10 Particular projectiles
5.1.10.1 Gas-powered weapons
5.1.10.2 Weapons firing blanks and irritants
5.1.10.3 Arrow wounds
5.1.10.4 Captive bolt pistols and bolt-firing tools
5.2 Modern graphical methods
5.2.1 Surface documentation
5.2.2 Radiological documentation
5.2.3 Combining surface and radiological documentation
5.2.4 Documenting crime scenes using modern imaging processes
5.2.5 3D visualization using VR headsets
5.3 Experimental reconstruction
5.3.1 Introduction
5.3.2 Reconstructing shooting incidents
5.3.2.1 Preliminary remarks
5.3.2.2 Points to bear in mind
5.3.2.3 Examples
5.3.3 Blunt force
5.3.3.1 Equipment used and experimental options
5.3.3.2 Examples
5.3.4 Using Virtopsy in practice
5.3.4.1 Documentation and visualization
5.3.4.2 Example
6 Wound ballistics and surgery
6.1 The historical connection between wound ballistics and surgery
6.2 Wound ballistics and ballistic trauma – what's the difference?
6.3 Comparing simulated wounds and real wounds
6.3.1 Preliminary remarks
6.3.2 Case studies
6.3.3 Conclusions
6.4 Clinical features of real wounds
6.5 The contribution of wound ballistics to the care of wounded people
6.5.1 The “wound profile”
6.5.2 What causes tissue damage?
6.5.3 Gas in tissues on a clinical x-ray
6.5.4 The “hot bullet” theory
6.5.5 Long bone fractures
6.5.6 Cranio-cerebral wounds
6.5.7 Unresolved issues
6.6 Documenting ballistic trauma
6.6.1 Overview
6.6.2 Scoring wounds in the field
6.6.3 The role of surgeons and the application of international humanitarian law
6.6.4 Documenting ballistic trauma – a wider responsibility for health professionals?
7 Wound ballistics and international agreements
7.1 Introduction
7.2 History of firearms and ammunition
7.2.1 General
7.2.2 The development of ammunition
7.2.2.1 The situation in 1800
7.2.2.2 The long bullet
7.2.2.3 The primer
7.2.2.4 The metal cartridge
7.2.2.5 Smokeless powder
7.2.2.6 Bullets
7.2.2.7 “Dum-dum” bullets
7.2.3 The development of firearms in the 19th century
7.2.3.1 Muzzle loaders and their problems
7.2.3.2 Breech-loaders
7.2.3.3 Repeaters
7.2.3.4 Handguns
7.2.4 The 20th century
7.2.4.1 Ammunition
7.2.4.2 Weapons
7.3 International treaties
7.3.1 Basic principles
7.3.2 The instruments
7.3.2.1 The original Geneva Convention (1864)
7.3.2.2 The St Petersburg Declaration (1868)
7.3.2.3 The Brussels Conference (1874)
7.3.2.4 The Hague Convention (1899)
7.3.2.5 The Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land (The Hague, 1907)
7.3.2.6 The Geneva Conventions of 1949
7.3.2.7 The 1977 protocols additional to the Geneva Conventions
7.3.2.8 The United Nations Conference (Geneva, 1980)
7.3.2.9 The relevance of international instruments to wound ballistics
7.3.3 A basis for formulating future instruments of international humanitarian law
7.3.3.1 The disadvantages of the wording of existing conventions
7.3.3.2 Projectile-independent assessment processes
7.3.3.3 Formulation of standards
A Tables
A.1 List of tables in the main text
A.2 Characteristics of materials
A.2.1 Fluids and materials that behave like fluids
A.2.2 Solid materials
A.3 Calibre designations (metric system)
A.3.1 Handguns
A.3.2 Military rifles
A.3.3 Hunting and sporting rifles
A.4 Ballistic data for cartridges (metric system)
A.4.1 Handgun cartridges
A.4.2 Military ammunition
A.4.3 Hunting and sporting ammunition
A.4.4 Pre-1900 weapons and ammunition
A.4.5 Ballistic performance of certain bows and crossbows
A.4.5.1 Technical dataa
A.4.5.2 Ballistic dataa
A.4.6 Ballistic data for various types of projectiles used in sporta
A.5 Calibre designations (British/U.S. system)
A.5.1 Handguns
A.5.2 Military rifles
A.5.3 Hunting and sporting rifles
A.6 Ballistic data for cartridges (British/U.S. units)
A.6.1 Handgun cartridges
A.6.2 Military ammunition (U.S.)
A.6.3 Hunting and sporting ammunition
A.6.4 Pre-1900 weapons and ammunition
A.6.5 Ballistic performance of certain bows and crossbows
A.6.5.1 Technical dataa
A.6.5.2 Ballistic dataa
A.6.6 Ballistic data for various types of projectiles used in sporta
A.7 Bullet designations
A.7.1 Bullet form
A.7.2 Bullet material
A.7.3 Bullet structure
A.8 Geometric data for selected bullets
A.8.1 Military bullets
A.8.2 Other bullets
A.9 Twist length, angle of twist and rotation
A.9.1 Handguns
A.9.2 Rifles
A.9.2.1 Military rifles
A.9.2.2 Hunting and sporting rifles
A.10 Ballistics tables (metric system)
A.10.1 Notes
A.10.2 Handguns
A.10.3 Rifles
A.10.4 Old rifles
A.10.5 Various
A.11 Ballistics tables (British/U.S. system)
A.11.1 Notes
A.11.2 Handguns
A.11.3 Rifles
A.11.4 Old rifles
A.11.5 Various
A.12 Shotguns and shot
A.12.1 Calibres of shotgun barrels
A.12.2 Ballistic data for shot pellets
A.12.3 Designations for buckshot pellets
A.12.4 Designations for normal shotgun pellets: British/U.S. system
A.12.5 Designations for normal shotgun pellets: metric system
B Glossary
B.1 English – German – French
B.2 German – English – French
B.3 French – German – English
Bibliography
General
Physics
Arms and ammunition
Ballistics
Wound ballistics, general
Wound ballistics and forensics
Wound ballistics and surgery
History of handguns and handgun ammunition
International Conventions
Articles and papers
Photo credits
Index