(With a cordial greeting from Buenos Aires, let me also say that the effort of making the uploaded version is offered as a humble homage to the founder of Library Genesis, who --er..., without waiting more millennia- ought to find her own place in this book.)
This 1111-page volume gathers brand new essays from some of the most respected scholars of ancient history, archaeology, and physical anthropology to create an engaging overview of the lives of women in antiquity. The book is divided into ten sections, nine focusing on a particular area, and also includes almost 200 images, maps, and charts. The sections cover Mesopotamia, Egypt, Anatolia, Cyprus, the Levant, the Aegean, Italy, and Western Europe, and include many lesser-known cultures such as the Celts, Iberia, Carthage, the Black Sea region, and Scandinavia. Women's experiences are explored, from ordinary daily life to religious ritual and practice, to motherhood, childbirth, sex, and building a career. Forensic evidence is also treated for the actual bodies of ancient women.
Women in Antiquity is edited by two experts in the field, and is an invaluable resource to students of the ancient world, gender studies, and women's roles throughout history.
From the Intro:
"This book was born from insomnia. Specifically, I was up as usual one morning at around
3 a.m. and started thinking about the latest book on “women” in “Antiquity” that had recently
come out, and why I was dissatisfied with it. For one thing, “Antiquity” consisted primarily
of Greece and Rome, giving exceptionally short shrift to the rest of the ancient world—places
like Mesopotamia, Egypt, Israel, Cyprus, Etruria, and the Celts. For another thing, most of the
“women” covered in the book were not actually women: they were literary characters, fictional
constructs invented by men mostly for other men.
The situation was not simply frustrating for an ancient historian who is generally trying to
avoid fiction in research and writing, it was almost insulting. So many books on the supposed
topic of the female sex in the ancient world slighted real women in preference for myth and
literature, as though real women simply could not be as interesting as Homer’s Andromakhê or
Vergil’s Dido. And so, as it was 3 in the morning and all common sense was, unlike the present
editor, fast asleep, I came up with the idea of this book, a book about real women—their
bodies, names, occupations, interests, sex lives, religious functions, and legal capacities. The
following day, the adrenaline still coursing through my system, I went out to lunch with Jean,
plied her with beer, and asked her to co-edit the present volume. Jean said “Yes,” probably
because she thought I would eventually come to my senses and get over it. Instead, we created
the volume you are reading presently.
The “Antiquity” this book covers is that which is relevant to Jean’s and my areas of study:
the ancient Near East, Egypt and Nubia, the Aegean, Italia, northern Africa, the Mediterranean
Sea, and Europe. The book is very roughly chronological and geographically organized,
starting with Mesopotamia and Egypt and working its way west from there. The individual
sections are arranged from the physical to the more economic, with chronological considerations
as well. In some cases, chapters are overviews of general topics, such as maternity or
economic roles. In other instances, we included chapters on topics specific to a region, such
as Mesopotamian tavern-keepers and Daunian women’s tattoos and female gladiators. Some
chapters deal with women in specific locales, such as Urkesh and Gurob, and several focus on
the notion of “Daily Life.” The “coda” deals with a topic that crosses all boundaries and is still
relevant in modern times. All in all, we wanted to present a survey that allows the reader to see
several different aspects of women in the ancient world. All those women being real, down to
their bones and teeth. Our catchword was “useful”; we want this book to be useful.
At no point in this book is the matter of “woman” problematized. Women are human beings
with two X chromosomes, X/0 chromosomes, or occasionally a human with a Y chromosome
but resistant to testosterone. Both editors accept that biological sex exists, and that gender is a
mutable social overlay associated, but not co-terminus, with biological sex. Anyone who has a
problem with this should probably just put down the book right now.
I am still somewhat amazed that we were able to get as many of the authors as we did to
contribute to this project (there were originally supposed to be more—the present book has
only 74 of the original 86 chapters). And the authors are simply amazing. Some are scholars I
have personally revered for ages1 and who have achieved virtual divinity in their own fields,
such as Rosalie David, Trevor Bryce, Gary Beckman, Jennifer Webb, Marguerite Yon, Carol
Meyers, Peggy Day, John Younger, Cynthia Shelmerdine, Ed Cohen, Jean MacIntosh Turfa,
and Miranda Aldhouse-Green. I am still stunned that these people were actually willing to
work with me. Other authors are new scholars fresh from their dissertations, such as Josué
J. Justel, Anne-Isabelle Langlois, Saana Svärd, Page Selinsky, Marc Orriols-Llonch, Jacopo
Tabolli, Linnea Åshede. Their work here is simply extraordinary, and I am so pleased to have
had the chance to meet and work with them. Please note: I mean to slight no one—ALL of our
authors have been phenomenal to work with, and I cannot overstate how much I enjoyed, and
how much I learned, working with them on this book. And I am truly grateful that they took
my editorial micro-managing with such grace and patience. I truly thank, and love, every last
one of our authors.
A few other people deserve a world of thanks for their help bringing this volume to light.
Amy Davis-Poynter and Elizabeth Thomasson at Routledge were amazingly optimistic and
patient about this book, and will hopefully remain so when I tell them that they really need
additional volumes to cover Asia, Africa, and the New World as well. I am grateful to Agnès
Garcia-Ventura for editing and feedback, and just generally for being such an excellent person
with whom to discuss gender things. I thank Jean for putting up with me during this project,
even when I did my editorial best to alienate all of her friends (sorry about that!). Most of
all, I thank and bless my husband, Paul Butler, who is responsible for most of the drawings
in this book, most of the maps, far too much technical support, and any tiny scraps of sanity
I have left (although he would probably point out that I didn’t start with many to begin with).
He has with patience and humor provided me with illustrations of full-frontal naked women,
group orgies, masturbating Egyptian gods, and Neolithic genitalia. I literally could not survive
without him.
Stephanie Lynn Budin
Many basic topics relating to the Near East and eastern Mediterranean have been made
accessible here for general readers, such as daily life and economy (Ebeling, Meyers, Burke,
Shelmerdine), the position of elite or royal women (Suter, Zinn, Tyldesley, Bryce, Svärd),
the role of religion in female lives (Gadotti, Onstine, Collins, Michel, Meyers, Boëlle-Weber,
Dillon), female sexuality (Budin, Orriols-Llonch), prostitution (Glazebrook Åshede), and
motherhood (Couto-Ferreira, Feucht, Beckman, Budin, Hong). Additional topics cover the
Neo-Elamite and Persian era (Brosius), the Philistine Levant (Yasur-Landau), Minoan culture
(Younger), siege warfare and deportation (Day), and women in Cypriot art (Serwint).
Many more books could (and some should) be written to include topics that had to be
omitted here: the gender-related and familial aspects of Punic infant sacrifice/burial traditions
(touched on by Lafrenz Samuels and Ferrer Martin), the sociological implications of domestic
abuse (as at Iranian Hasanlu, see Monge and Selinsky), the reconstruction of physical
appearance and ancient concepts of beauty and health (Prag, Swaddling), the divide between
women rulers and ruled (cf. Joyce Tyldesley on Egypt to appreciate how much we are missing
for other groups). We are indeed fortunate to have chapters on the interpretation of human
remains from Egypt (David), Nubia (Phillips), Cyprus (Lorentz), Greece (Fox, Whitley),
Sardinia (Lo Schiavo and Milletti), the Ager Faliscus (De Lucia Brolli and Tabolli), and
the Black Sea (Mayor). Fresh discoveries and special projects prevented Estelle Lazer and
Marshall Becker from providing chapters here on Pompeian and Etruscan human remains:
another field for future publications.
In addition to the women of the Near East and Classical Civilization, we cannot overlook
their contemporaries in North Africa, Iberia, Gaul, and Europe, whether through synthetic
analyses or the latest data from excavations and technical studies. Even on topics such as
“Etruscan Women,” there is much yet to be researched and written, and the chapters here on the
lives of women in Italic tribes (Faliscans, Daunians—De Lucia Brolli and Tabolli, Norman),
and in Nuragic Sardinia (Lo Schiavo and Milletti) are some of the first to address these fields,
with surprising additions or corrections to make to the received opinions of past scholarship.
New finds of artistic representations, and recent research and excavation in Etruria have
yielded startling insights into the lives, childhoods (Bonfante) and death of women of both the
ruling (Bartoloni and Pitzalis) and the servile classes (Benelli), as well as the cult opportunities
open to Etruscan worshippers and priestesses (Edlund-Berry). The everyday activities
of queens and commoners have become dramatically visible to us through new research into
textile production, which touched every woman and girl in the Italian Mediterranean (Gleba).
Through bodies (such as Seianti Hanunia Tlesnasa, Swaddling) and circumstantial evidence
(false teeth, votive models betraying surgical section, Turfa), we must reconstruct a picture at
times similar to modern life, at others puzzlingly alien. The Roman successors of Italic and
Etruscan civilization continued in this variegated situation, as seen in daily life (Hemelrijk),
motherhood and family traditions (Larsson Lovén, Dolansky) and economic activities ranging
from business administration (Becker) to prostitution (Åshede). (Contrast the findings for the
Bronze Age Levant, Egypt, Cyprus and Aegean: Yon, McGeough, Meyers, Kelly-Buccellati,
Justel, McCarthy, Langlois, Picton, Sweeney, Webb, Steel, Smith) or historical Greece
(Cohen, Ramsey). The Roman system also elicits discussion of the effects of the military on
women (Greene) and the tradition of female fighters (McCullough) . . . to be considered along
with the earlier, Greek traditions of “Amazons” (Mayor).)
Even the prejudiced Roman literary sources pointed us to the importance of women’s activities
and social power among the horsewomen of the Black Sea and adjacent regions (Mayor),
the Iberian cultures of the Bronze and Iron Ages (Prados Torreira, Ferrer Martin), the wives
and female rulers of the Celtic groups of Europe (Aldhouse-Green), and, setting the stage for
the medieval period, the women of Scandinavia (Wicker), just now beginning to emerge as
their burials are being excavated.
Our scholars have shared the results of their own unique research projects or excavated discoveries,
and/or their fresh surveys of the real evidence for women’s experience across a wide
swathe of the ancient Old World. We are sure these realistic studies will interest you, and hope
that our approach will provoke yet more investigation of the real ancient world.
Jean MacIntosh Turfa
Women in Antiquity- Front Cover......Page 1
Women in Antiquity......Page 2
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
Figures......Page 14
Tables......Page 18
Maps......Page 19
List of abbreviations......Page 20
Notes on contributors......Page 25
General introduction......Page 38
Chronological designations......Page 40
Note......Page 41
PART I: Mesopotamia......Page 42
Introduction......Page 43
Suggested further reading......Page 45
Sources......Page 46
Terminology......Page 49
Sexual desire......Page 50
Types of sex......Page 52
Sex and the law......Page 54
The erotic Ḫarimtu......Page 56
The practical Ḫarimtu......Page 57
Notes......Page 58
References......Page 60
How to define motherhood in Ancient Mesopotamia......Page 62
Acting (like) mothers: motherhood and care......Page 64
Legal aspects of maternity, breastfeeding, and nursing......Page 67
Notes......Page 69
References......Page 70
Early Mesopotamia, women, and images......Page 72
Banquet scenes......Page 74
Libation scenes......Page 77
Presentation scenes......Page 78
Audience scenes......Page 79
Notes......Page 82
References......Page 83
Introduction: the uniqueness of Urkesh glyptics......Page 85
Representations of women in Urkesh from cultic settings......Page 87
Images of active, working women......Page 90
Zamena, the wet-nurse of Uqnitum......Page 93
Tuli, the cook of Uqnitum......Page 95
Tar’am-Agade, daughter of Naram-Sin......Page 96
Conclusions......Page 97
References......Page 98
The historical background......Page 101
Women and religion......Page 102
Women and magic......Page 103
Women and the cult......Page 104
Notes......Page 110
References......Page 111
The sources......Page 114
What was the legal capacity of Ancient Near Eastern women?......Page 115
Women and marriage......Page 116
Economic agreements......Page 120
Court cases......Page 121
Women and slavery......Page 123
Women and inheritance practices......Page 125
Legal gender shift......Page 128
Notes......Page 131
References......Page 133
Introduction......Page 138
Seals as identifiers......Page 139
Women in business......Page 141
Palace control......Page 145
Conclusion......Page 147
References......Page 148
Attestations and sources......Page 150
Beer brewing......Page 151
Commerce in beer and its related products......Page 152
The status of the tapstress and her establishment......Page 153
A shady reputation......Page 154
Relative independence......Page 156
Notes......Page 157
References......Page 160
Neo-Assyrian women in the textual sources......Page 163
Neo-Assyrian queens......Page 164
Elite women in administration......Page 168
Who were the sekretū?......Page 169
Conclusions......Page 170
Notes......Page 171
References......Page 172
Introduction......Page 175
Background......Page 176
Age estimation......Page 177
Identification of trauma......Page 178
Results......Page 181
Discussion......Page 183
References......Page 190
Introduction......Page 193
Women in the Neo-Elamite Period (c.1000–539 bce)......Page 194
Royal women in Achaemenid Persia......Page 197
Royal marriage alliances......Page 202
Female workers of Persis......Page 203
Women in legal documents......Page 204
Through a Greek lens......Page 205
List of abbreviations......Page 206
Notes......Page 207
References......Page 210
PART II: Egypt......Page 212
Introduction......Page 213
Further reading......Page 217
Chapter 12: Understanding the lives of Ancient Egyptian women:the contribution of physical anthropology......Page 218
Anthropological and scientific studies......Page 219
The state of women’s health......Page 221
Medical and cosmetic treatments......Page 225
Notes......Page 227
References......Page 229
Written sources and female sexual relationships......Page 231
Erotic poetry and the female lover......Page 233
Iconography and sexuality......Page 236
References......Page 239
Mother and father in the creation of the child......Page 241
Pregnancy and birth......Page 242
Nursing......Page 243
Mothers and childcare......Page 245
Royal mothers......Page 247
Papyri......Page 249
Notes......Page 250
References......Page 252
Defining priesthood......Page 255
Women in the temples......Page 256
Women, music, and the gods......Page 257
Royal women......Page 260
Problems stemming from historical biases......Page 261
Notes......Page 263
References......Page 264
Gurob discovery......Page 266
The trade in women......Page 269
The women of Gurob......Page 270
References......Page 277
Background......Page 280
Marriage......Page 281
Motherhood......Page 283
Mistress of the house......Page 285
Religion, burial, and the afterworld......Page 286
Notes......Page 287
References......Page 289
Royal women of Amarna......Page 292
The elite: the royal nurses......Page 297
The unknown populace: lost or traceable?......Page 298
Notes......Page 302
References......Page 305
Recognising the queen......Page 308
The queen consort......Page 309
The King’s Mother......Page 313
Harem queens......Page 314
References......Page 316
History of research......Page 317
Source material......Page 319
The body and gender distinctions......Page 320
Burials......Page 322
Priestesses and ‘God’s Wives’......Page 323
Queens and other royal women......Page 325
Clothing and adornment (the ‘obligatory’ last chapter)......Page 329
Appendix: Nubian deities......Page 331
References......Page 333
Chronology......Page 336
Introduction......Page 337
Further reading......Page 339
Setting the scene......Page 340
The great queens of the Hittite world......Page 341
Royal match-making......Page 344
The royal succession......Page 345
Marriage provisions in general......Page 346
Marriages between or with slaves......Page 349
Sexual offences......Page 350
Women in the workforce......Page 352
Conclusions......Page 353
Notes......Page 354
References......Page 355
Sexuality and procreation......Page 356
Becoming pregnant......Page 358
Being pregnant......Page 359
Giving birth......Page 360
Notes......Page 362
References......Page 363
Chapter 23: Women in Hittite religion......Page 366
The queen......Page 367
Priestesses and other religious professionals......Page 368
Festivals......Page 370
Birth and death......Page 371
Sacrifice......Page 374
Religious parity?......Page 375
Notes......Page 376
References......Page 377
PART IV: Cyprus......Page 380
Introduction......Page 381
Further reading......Page 384
Theoretically informed bioarchaeology and bioarchaeology of individuals......Page 386
Case studies: portraits of real women in ancient Cyprus......Page 389
Discussion and conclusions......Page 395
References......Page 396
The Chalcolithic......Page 398
Early Cypriot III–Middle Cypriot I (2000–1800 bce)......Page 402
Late Cypriot II–III (1400–1050 bce)......Page 406
Iron Age......Page 407
Notes......Page 408
References......Page 409
Houses and households......Page 412
The mortuary data......Page 415
The iconographic record......Page 416
Women and technology......Page 418
Putting it together......Page 420
Notes......Page 421
References......Page 422
Chapter 27: The social and economic roles played by the women of Alashiya......Page 423
Nature of the evidence......Page 424
Social and economic roles within the household......Page 425
Beyond the household......Page 428
Life after life......Page 430
Notes......Page 432
References......Page 433
Introduction......Page 436
Chronological phases of early Cypriot culture......Page 437
Conclusion......Page 448
References......Page 449
Chapter 29: Women in the cities of Cyprus: rulers and urban dwellers from theLate Bronze Age to the Hellenistic period......Page 453
Family......Page 454
Rulers......Page 457
Temples......Page 460
Workshops......Page 463
Conclusions......Page 464
Notes......Page 465
References......Page 467
Introduction......Page 472
Introduction......Page 476
Further reading......Page 477
The priestesses......Page 478
Between Syria and Anatolia......Page 485
QDŠ/QDŠT: from Mesopotamia to Ugarit......Page 486
Notes......Page 487
References......Page 488
Chapter 31: Women’s daily lives in Late Bronze Age Ugarit(2nd millennium bce)......Page 490
Status......Page 491
Images of women......Page 493
The implements of daily life......Page 496
Birth and childcare......Page 497
Notes......Page 499
References......Page 500
In the shadow of Egypt: the textual sources......Page 502
Artistic representations of females in Middle and Late Bronze Age Canaan......Page 503
Archaeological sources from Middle and Late Bronze Age Canaan......Page 504
Food and drink preparation......Page 505
Pottery production......Page 506
Tombs......Page 507
Temples......Page 509
Conclusion......Page 510
References......Page 511
Chapter 33: “Will womankind now be hunting?”: the work and economic lives ofwomen at Late Bronze Age Ugarit......Page 513
Women’s work in the Ugaritic household......Page 514
Women, specialized labour, and the palace administration......Page 517
Women in legal literature......Page 518
Female slaves......Page 521
Conclusions......Page 522
References......Page 523
Introduction......Page 525
Household roles......Page 526
Outside the household: women’s community roles......Page 532
Conclusions......Page 533
References......Page 535
Chapter 35: Women in Philistia: the archaeological record of the Iron Age......Page 538
Images of female Sea Peoples......Page 539
Intercultural households?......Page 541
Women and religion in Philistia......Page 542
Conclusion: long-lasting image of the other?......Page 544
References......Page 545
Introduction......Page 548
Resources for the study of women’s religious activities......Page 549
Women’s household religious activities......Page 550
Community religious roles......Page 554
Evaluating women’s religious lives......Page 556
References......Page 557
Chapter 37: “Until I come and take you away to a land like your own”:a gendered look at siege warfare and mass deportation......Page 558
Siege warfare......Page 559
Mass deportations......Page 562
Notes......Page 567
References......Page 568
Introduction......Page 570
The house as a cornerstone for Phoenician and Punic communities......Page 572
Women’s ritual practices in the domestic sphere......Page 573
Carthage and the epigraphical evidence......Page 577
Notes......Page 583
References......Page 585
PART VI:The Aegean, Bronze Age and historical......Page 590
Introduction......Page 591
Chapter 39: From the Caves of the Winds to Mycenae rich in gold: the faces ofMinoan and Mycenaean women......Page 598
Notes......Page 607
References......Page 608
The Minoan woman’s world......Page 610
A Minoan woman’s life......Page 614
The importance of Minoan women......Page 624
Legacies and survivals......Page 625
References......Page 626
Minoan Crete......Page 632
Bronze Age Greece......Page 635
Linear B......Page 637
Iconography: Mycenaean kourotrophoi......Page 641
Conclusions......Page 642
References......Page 643
Chapter 42: i-je-re-ja, ka-ra-wi-po-ro and others . . . : women in Mycenaeanreligion......Page 645
The iconographic data......Page 646
Evidence from the Linear B texts......Page 647
Further reading......Page 653
References......Page 654
Chapter 43: Women in the Mycenaean economy......Page 655
Landholders......Page 656
Supervisors......Page 657
Middle-level workers......Page 662
Low-level workers......Page 664
Mothers, wives, and daughters......Page 666
Conclusion......Page 668
References......Page 669
Beginnings of cloth production......Page 672
Fibers......Page 673
Tools of production......Page 674
Texts and textiles......Page 676
References......Page 680
Introduction......Page 684
Reproduction and age-at-death......Page 686
Class and status......Page 687
Stature......Page 688
Diet......Page 689
Dental disease......Page 690
Occupational stress markers......Page 691
Headshaping......Page 692
References......Page 693
Introduction......Page 697
The view from the household......Page 698
The Queen of Lefkandi......Page 699
The grave of a rich Athenian lady......Page 701
Phrasikleia: the maiden who speaks forever......Page 704
Conclusions......Page 706
References......Page 707
Introduction......Page 710
Becoming a mother: birth, death, and care......Page 711
Working at home and mothering at work......Page 714
Social status and mothering for adulthood......Page 715
Conclusion......Page 717
References......Page 718
Chapter 48: ‘Chrysis the Hiereia having placed a lighted torch near the garlands then fell asleep’ (Thucydides Iv.133.2): priestesses serving the gods and goddesses in Classical Greece......Page 720
Priestesses as custodians of temple keys......Page 721
Priestesses and cult statues......Page 723
A praying, not a cursing priestess......Page 724
Dress of priestesses......Page 725
Becoming a priestess......Page 727
Sexual and other purity......Page 728
Appearance and soundness of body......Page 729
Tenure of office......Page 730
Honours for priestesses......Page 731
Perquisites of priestesses......Page 733
Priestesses and ritual speech......Page 734
Summing up: Kleobis and Biton: ‘get me to the temple on time’......Page 735
Conclusion......Page 736
Notes......Page 737
References......Page 738
Preconceptions and terminology......Page 740
Living the life: three case studies......Page 742
Prostitutes and gender......Page 745
Conclusion......Page 746
Notes......Page 747
References......Page 748
Disinterring “the Athenian businesswoman”......Page 751
Notes......Page 759
References......Page 760
Chapter 51: Hellenistic women and the law: agency, identity, and community......Page 763
Women’s identity as legal agents......Page 764
Legal representation and family cooperation......Page 766
Patterns of inheritance......Page 768
Conclusion......Page 770
Notes......Page 771
References......Page 774
Sardinia......Page 776
Etruria......Page 777
Italic cultures......Page 781
Rome......Page 782
Further reading......Page 783
Introduction......Page 786
The evidence of physical anthropology......Page 787
Indicators of gender and of role......Page 792
Marriage and Motherhood......Page 796
To conclude: par condicio (“equality of treatment”)......Page 797
References......Page 802
Chapter 53: Seianti Hanunia Tlesnasa: an Etruscan aristocrat......Page 806
Seianti’s sarcophagus and tomb......Page 807
Seianti’s silver tomb goods......Page 808
A fashionable cosmopolitan......Page 810
Mortuary practice......Page 811
Seianti in life: a traumatic accident......Page 812
Reconstructing the face of Seianti......Page 813
A reunion?......Page 814
Notes......Page 815
References......Page 816
The evidence......Page 818
Infant mortality and death in childbirth......Page 823
Nursing mothers and kourotrophoi......Page 824
Rites of passage and age groups......Page 825
Nuclear families......Page 826
Notes......Page 828
References......Page 830
The general health of Etruscan women......Page 834
Kosmesis: personal care and appearance......Page 835
Gynecology......Page 836
A specific case: the health of Seianti Hanunia Tlesnasa......Page 841
References......Page 842
Written sources......Page 847
Social mobility and bonds of alliance......Page 848
Marriage as a rite of passage......Page 849
The wedding ceremony......Page 850
References......Page 854
Textiles......Page 857
Clothing......Page 860
Emblems of power......Page 861
Conviviality......Page 863
References......Page 864
Introduction......Page 867
Etruscan female deities......Page 868
Etruscan female offerings and offerants......Page 869
Rituals and ritual action......Page 873
Conclusion......Page 876
Notes......Page 878
References......Page 879
Textile production......Page 881
Sources of evidence......Page 882
Women and the textiles they made......Page 886
References......Page 887
The childhood of the Ager Faliscus: eighth to mid-seventh century bc......Page 889
The maturity of the Ager Faliscus: mid-seventh to third century bc......Page 896
References......Page 899
Daunian society and economy......Page 902
Daunian stelae......Page 905
The traditional costume of Daunan women......Page 906
Activities of Daunian women......Page 910
References......Page 912
Iconographic evidence......Page 914
Epigraphy: female slaves......Page 915
Epigraphy: female slave-owners......Page 917
Notes......Page 918
References......Page 919
PART VIII:Rome......Page 920
Chapter 63: Roman motherhood......Page 922
The dangers of pregnancy and parturition......Page 923
Iconography......Page 924
Tending small children......Page 925
Evil stepmothers......Page 926
Motherhood and divorce......Page 927
Motherhood in public and private life......Page 928
Notes......Page 929
References......Page 930
Norms and daily practice......Page 932
A life of leisure or daily toils?......Page 934
Notes......Page 939
References......Page 940
Introduction......Page 942
The Matralia......Page 944
The Nonae Caprotinae......Page 947
Conclusions......Page 949
References......Page 950
A survey of female professional employment......Page 952
Professions in retail and commerce......Page 953
Evidence for physical labor in the workplace......Page 955
Feminae remotae et opera virilis (excluded women and men’s work)......Page 959
Social restrictions to commerce......Page 960
Mulieres enim . . . ipsae sibi negotia tractant (Sisters are doin’ it for themselves)......Page 961
Women as owners of businesses and equipment......Page 962
Notes......Page 964
References......Page 967
The prostitutes......Page 969
Working conditions......Page 971
Lived experiences......Page 973
Public women, invisible men......Page 974
Notes......Page 976
References......Page 977
The Roman army and its settlements......Page 979
The Roman army and laws on soldiers’ marriages......Page 980
Women and families present in military settlements: the evidence and arguments......Page 981
Notes......Page 987
References......Page 988
Literary evidence......Page 991
Art and inscriptions......Page 993
False leads......Page 995
Notes......Page 999
References......Page 1000
PART IX:At the edges......Page 1002
Introduction......Page 1003
Further reading......Page 1004
“Amazon” graves and relics in classical antiquity......Page 1006
Modern excavations of burials of armed women......Page 1008
Northern Europe......Page 1011
Northern Greece (Ancient Macedon)......Page 1012
Bulgaria, Romania, Moldava, Ukraine, Southern Russia (Ancient Thrace and Scythia)......Page 1013
Kazakhstan, Afghanistan......Page 1015
Altai, Ukok Plateau, Southern Siberia, Tuva......Page 1018
Conclusion......Page 1019
Notes......Page 1020
References......Page 1021
Introduction......Page 1023
Household and home......Page 1024
The preparation and transformation of comestibles......Page 1026
Marriage, lineage, and reproduction......Page 1028
Textile manufacture and production......Page 1034
Funerary contexts: funerary ritual and representations of aristocratic women......Page 1036
Double burials......Page 1037
Religion: women’s participation in the sanctuaries......Page 1038
Notes......Page 1041
References......Page 1042
Setting the scene: time and space......Page 1045
The archaeology of ‘big’ women......Page 1047
Walking on the dark side......Page 1053
Celtic women through classical eyes......Page 1054
Conclusion......Page 1059
Notes......Page 1060
References......Page 1062
Elite burials with Roman goods......Page 1064
Sex/gender determination......Page 1067
Evidence of exogamy......Page 1070
Women and gold in the hall......Page 1071
The power of women......Page 1072
References......Page 1073
PART X:Coda......Page 1076
Martial ravaging and rape......Page 1078
Ancille, the Muslim Mädchen, and Briseis: common ground in individual female experiences of martial ravaging and rape......Page 1085
Conclusion......Page 1090
Notes......Page 1091
References......Page 1092
Index......Page 1094
