Wireless Communications

Half-title......Page 2
Title......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Dedication......Page 6
Brief Table of Contents......Page 8
Contents......Page 10
Preface......Page 18
Abbreviations......Page 23
Notation......Page 28
1.1 History of Wireless Communications......Page 30
1.2 Wireless Vision......Page 33
1.3 Technical Issues......Page 35
1.4.1 Cellular Telephone Systems......Page 37
1.4.2 Cordless Phones......Page 42
1.4.3 Wireless Local Area Networks......Page 44
1.4.4 Wide Area Wireless Data Services......Page 45
1.4.6 Paging Systems......Page 46
1.4.7 Satellite Networks......Page 47
1.4.8 Low-Cost, Low-Power Radios: Bluetooth and ZigBee......Page 48
1.4.9 Ultrawideband Radios......Page 49
1.5.1 Methods for Spectrum Allocation......Page 50
1.5.2 Spectrum Allocations for Existing Systems......Page 51
1.6 Standards......Page 52
PROBLEMS......Page 53
REFERNCE......Page 55
2 Path Loss and Shadowing......Page 56
2.1 Radio Wave Propagation......Page 57
2.2 Transmit and Receive Signal Models......Page 58
2.3 Free-Space Path Loss......Page 60
2.4 Ray Tracing......Page 62
2.4.1 Two-Ray Model......Page 63
2.4.2 Ten-Ray Model (Dielectric Canyon)......Page 66
2.4.3 General Ray Tracing......Page 67
2.4.4 Local Mean Received Power......Page 70
2.5.1 Okumura Model......Page 71
2.5.2 Hata Model......Page 72
2.5.4 Piecewise Linear (Multislope) Model......Page 73
2.5.5 Indoor Attenuation Factors......Page 74
2.6 Simplified Path-Loss Model......Page 75
2.7 Shadow Fading......Page 77
2.8 Combined Path Loss and Shadowing......Page 80
2.9 Outage Probability under Path Loss and Shadowing......Page 81
2.10 Cell Coverage Area......Page 82
PROBLEMS......Page 85
REFERENCES......Page 89
3 Statistical Multipath Channel Models......Page 93
3.1 Time-Varying Channel Impulse Response......Page 94
3.2 Narrowband Fading Models......Page 99
3.2.1 Autocorrelation, Cross-Correlation, and Power Spectral Density......Page 100
3.2.2 Envelope and Power Distributions......Page 107
3.2.3 Level Crossing Rate and Average Fade Duration......Page 108
3.3 Wideband Fading Models......Page 111
3.3.1 Power Delay Profile......Page 115
3.3.2 Coherence Bandwidth......Page 117
3.3.3 Doppler Power Spectrum and Channel Coherence Time......Page 119
3.3.4 Transforms for Autocorrelation and Scattering Functions......Page 120
3.4 Discrete-Time Model......Page 121
3.5 Space-Time Channel Models......Page 122
PROBLEMS......Page 123
REFERENCES......Page 126
4 Capacity of Wireless Channels......Page 128
4.1 Capacity in AWGN......Page 129
4.2.2 Channel Distribution Information Known......Page 131
4.2.3 Channel Side Information at Receiver......Page 132
SHANNON (ERGODIC) CAPACITY......Page 133
CAPACITY WITH OUTAGE......Page 134
SHANNON CAPACITY......Page 136
ZERO-OUTAGE CAPACITY AND CHANNEL INVERSION......Page 140
4.2.5 Capacity with Receiver Diversity......Page 142
4.2.6 Capacity Comparisons......Page 143
4.3.1 Time-Invariant Channels......Page 145
4.3.2 Time-Varying Channels......Page 148
PROBLEMS......Page 150
REFERENCES......Page 153
5 Digital Modulation and Detection......Page 155
5.1 Signal Space Analysis......Page 156
5.1.1 Signal and System Model......Page 157
5.1.2 Geometric Representation of Signals......Page 158
5.1.3 Receiver Structure and Sufficient Statistics......Page 161
5.1.4 Decision Regions and the Maximum Likelihood Decision Criterion......Page 163
5.1.5 Error Probability and the Union Bound......Page 166
5.3 Amplitude and Phase Modulation......Page 171
5.3.1 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (MPAM)......Page 173
5.3.2 Phase-Shift Keying (MPSK)......Page 175
5.3.3 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (MQAM)......Page 177
5.3.4 Differential Modulation......Page 178
5.3.6 Quadrature Offset......Page 181
5.4 Frequency Modulation......Page 182
5.4.1 Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK) and Minimum-Shift Keying (MSK)......Page 184
5.4.3 Noncoherent Detection of FSK......Page 185
5.5 Pulse Shaping......Page 186
5.6 Symbol Synchronization and Carrier Phase Recovery......Page 189
5.6.1 Receiver Structure with Phase and Timing Recovery......Page 190
5.6.2 Maximum Likelihood Phase Estimation......Page 192
5.6.3 Maximum Likelihood Timing Estimation......Page 194
PROBLEMS......Page 196
6.1.1 Signal-to-Noise Power Ratio and Bit/Symbol Energy......Page 201
6.1.2 Error Probability for BPSK and QPSK......Page 202
6.1.3 Error Probability for MPSK......Page 204
6.1.4 Error Probability for MPAM and MQAM......Page 205
6.1.5 Error Probability for FSK and CPFSK......Page 208
6.1.7 Error Probability for Differential Modulation......Page 209
6.3 Fading......Page 211
6.3.1 Outage Probability......Page 212
6.3.2 Average Probability of Error......Page 213
6.3.3 Moment Generating Function Approach to Average Error Probability......Page 216
6.3.4 Combined Outage and Average Error Probability......Page 220
6.4 Doppler Spread......Page 221
6.5 Intersymbol Interference......Page 224
PROBLEMS......Page 226
REFERENCES......Page 231
7.1 Realization of Independent Fading Paths......Page 233
7.2.1 System Model......Page 235
7.2.2 Selection Combining......Page 237
7.2.3 Threshold Combining......Page 240
7.2.4 Maximal-Ratio Combining......Page 243
7.2.5 Equal-Gain Combining......Page 245
7.3.1 Channel Known at Transmitter......Page 246
7.3.2 Channel Unknown at Transmitter – The Alamouti Scheme......Page 248
7.4 Moment Generating Functions in Diversity Analysis......Page 249
7.4.1 Diversity Analysis for MRC......Page 250
7.4.3 Diversity Analysis for Noncoherent and Differentially Coherent Modulation......Page 253
PROBLEMS......Page 254
REFERENCES......Page 256
8 Coding for Wireless Channels......Page 257
8.1 Overview of Code Design......Page 258
8.2 Linear Block Codes......Page 259
8.2.1 Binary Linear Block Codes......Page 260
8.2.2 Generator Matrix......Page 261
8.2.3 Parity-Check Matrix and Syndrome Testing......Page 263
8.2.4 Cyclic Codes......Page 265
8.2.5 Hard Decision Decoding (HDD)......Page 267
8.2.6 Probability of Error for HDD in AWGN......Page 269
8.2.7 Probability of Error for SDD in AWGN......Page 271
8.2.8 Common Linear Block Codes......Page 273
8.2.9 Nonbinary Block Codes: The Reed Solomon Code......Page 274
8.3.1 Code Characterization: Trellis Diagrams......Page 275
8.3.2 Maximum Likelihood Decoding......Page 278
8.3.3 The Viterbi Algorithm......Page 281
8.3.4 Distance Properties......Page 282
8.3.5 State Diagrams and Transfer Functions......Page 283
8.3.6 Error Probability for Convolutional Codes......Page 286
8.4 Concatenated Codes......Page 287
8.5 Turbo Codes......Page 288
8.6 Low-Density Parity-Check Codes......Page 291
8.7 Coded Modulation......Page 292
8.8.1 Block Coding with Interleaving......Page 296
8.8.2 Convolutional Coding with Interleaving......Page 299
8.9 Unequal Error Protection Codes......Page 300
8.10 Joint Source and Channel Coding......Page 303
PROBLEMS......Page 304
REFERENCES......Page 308
9 Adaptive Modulation and Coding......Page 312
9.1 Adaptive Transmission System......Page 313
9.2.1 Variable-Rate Techniques......Page 314
9.2.2 Variable-Power Techniques......Page 315
9.2.3 Variable Error Probability......Page 316
9.3 Variable-Rate Variable-Power MQAM......Page 317
9.3.1 Error Probability Bounds......Page 318
9.3.2 Adaptive Rate and Power Schemes......Page 319
9.3.3 Channel Inversion with Fixed Rate......Page 321
9.3.4 Discrete-Rate Adaptation......Page 322
9.3.5 Average Fade Region Duration......Page 327
9.3.7 Channel Estimation Error and Delay......Page 329
9.3.8 Adaptive Coded Modulation......Page 332
9.4.1 Continuous-Rate Adaptation......Page 334
9.4.2 Discrete-Rate Adaptation......Page 338
9.4.3 Average BER Target......Page 339
9.5 Adaptive Techniques in Combined Fast and Slow Fading......Page 343
PROBLEMS......Page 344
REFERENCES......Page 348
10.1 Narrowband MIMO Model......Page 350
10.2 Parallel Decomposition of the MIMO Channel......Page 352
10.3.1 Static Channels......Page 354
CHANNEL KNOWN AT TRANSMITTER: WATER-FILLING......Page 355
CHANNEL UNKNOWN AT TRANSMITTER: UNIFORM POWER ALLOCATION......Page 357
10.3.2 Fading Channels......Page 358
CHANNEL UNKNOWN AT TRANSMITTER: ERGODIC CAPACITY AND CAPACITY WITH OUTAGE......Page 359
NO CSI AT THE TRANSMITTER OR RECEIVER......Page 362
10.4 MIMO Diversity Gain: Beamforming......Page 363
10.5 Diversity–Multiplexing Trade-offs......Page 364
10.6.1 ML Detection and Pairwise Error Probability......Page 366
10.6.3 Space-Time Trellis and Block Codes......Page 368
10.6.4 Spatial Multiplexing and BLAST Architectures......Page 369
10.7 Frequency-Selective MIMO Channels......Page 371
10.8 Smart Antennas......Page 372
PROBLEMS......Page 373
REFERENCES......Page 376
11 Equalization......Page 380
11.1 Equalizer Noise Enhancement......Page 381
11.2 Equalizer Types......Page 382
11.3 Folded Spectrum and ISI-Free Transmission......Page 383
11.4 Linear Equalizers......Page 386
11.4.1 Zero-Forcing (ZF) Equalizers......Page 387
11.4.2 Minimum Mean-Square Error (MMSE) Equalizers......Page 388
11.5 Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimation......Page 391
11.6 Decision-Feedback Equalization......Page 393
11.7 Other Equalization Methods......Page 394
11.8 Adaptive Equalizers: Training and Tracking......Page 395
PROBLEMS......Page 397
REFERENCES......Page 401
12 Multicarrier Modulation......Page 403
12.1 Data Transmission Using Multiple Carriers......Page 404
12.2 Multicarrier Modulation with Overlapping Subchannels......Page 407
12.3 Mitigation of Subcarrier Fading......Page 409
12.3.3 Precoding......Page 410
12.3.4 Adaptive Loading......Page 411
12.4.1 The DFT and Its Properties......Page 412
12.4.2 The Cyclic Prefix......Page 413
12.4.3 Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM)......Page 415
12.4.4 Matrix Representation of OFDM......Page 417
12.4.5 Vector Coding......Page 419
12.5.1 Peak-to-Average Power Ratio......Page 422
12.5.2 Frequency and Timing Offset......Page 424
12.6 Case Study: The IEEE 802.11a Wireless LAN Standard......Page 425
PROBLEMS......Page 427
REFERENCES......Page 430
13.1 Spread-Spectrum Principles......Page 432
13.2.1 DSSS System Model......Page 438
13.2.2 Spreading Codes for ISI Rejection: Random, Pseudorandom, and m-Sequences......Page 442
13.2.3 Synchronization......Page 446
13.2.4 RAKE Receivers......Page 448
13.3 Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)......Page 450
13.4 Multiuser DSSS Systems......Page 453
GOLD CODES......Page 454
KASAMI CODES......Page 455
WALSH–HADAMARD CODES......Page 456
13.4.2 Downlink Channels......Page 457
13.4.3 Uplink Channels......Page 462
13.4.4 Multiuser Detection......Page 467
13.4.5 Multicarrier CDMA......Page 470
PROBLEMS......Page 472
REFERENCES......Page 478
14.1 Multiuser Channels: The Uplink and Downlink......Page 481
14.2 Multiple Access......Page 483
14.2.1 Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)......Page 484
14.2.2 Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)......Page 485
14.2.3 Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)......Page 487
14.2.4 Space-Division Multiple Access (SDMA)......Page 488
14.2.5 Hybrid Techniques......Page 489
14.3 Random Access......Page 490
14.3.1 Pure ALOHA......Page 491
14.3.2 Slotted ALOHA......Page 492
14.3.3 Carrier-Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)......Page 493
14.4 Power Control......Page 495
14.5 Downlink (Broadcast) Channel Capacity......Page 498
14.5.2 Capacity in AWGN......Page 499
14.5.3 Common Data......Page 505
14.5.4 Capacity in Fading......Page 506
14.5.5 Capacity with Multiple Antennas......Page 512
14.6.1 Capacity in AWGN......Page 513
14.6.2 Capacity in Fading......Page 517
14.7 Uplink–Downlink Duality......Page 519
14.8 Multiuser Diversity......Page 523
14.9 MIMO Multiuser Systems......Page 525
PROBLEMS......Page 526
REFERENCES......Page 529
15.1 Cellular System Fundamentals......Page 534
15.2 Channel Reuse......Page 537
15.3.1 Orthogonal Systems (TDMA/FDMA)......Page 543
15.3.2 Nonorthogonal Systems (CDMA)......Page 545
15.4 Interference Reduction Techniques......Page 547
15.5.1 Scheduling......Page 549
15.5.2 Dynamic Channel Assignment......Page 550
15.5.3 Power Control......Page 551
15.6.1 Shannon Capacity of Cellular Systems......Page 553
15.6.2 Area Spectral Efficiency......Page 554
PROBLEMS......Page 557
REFERENCES......Page 560
16 Ad Hoc Wireless Networks......Page 564
16.1 Applications......Page 565
16.1.2 Home Networks......Page 566
16.1.4 Sensor Networks......Page 567
16.1.5 Distributed Control Systems......Page 568
16.2 Design Principles and Challenges......Page 569
16.3 Protocol Layers......Page 571
16.3.1 Physical Layer Design......Page 572
16.3.2 Access Layer Design......Page 573
NEIGHBOR DISCOVERY AND TOPOLOGY CONTROL......Page 576
ROUTING......Page 577
RESOURCE ALLOCATION AND FLOW CONTROL......Page 580
16.3.5 Transport Layer Design......Page 581
16.3.5 Application Layer Design......Page 582
16.4 Cross-Layer Design......Page 583
16.5 Network Capacity Limits......Page 585
16.6 Energy-Constrained Networks......Page 587
16.6.1 Modulation and Coding......Page 588
16.6.2 MIMO and Cooperative MIMO......Page 589
16.6.3 Access, Routing, and Sleeping......Page 590
16.6.5 Capacity per Unit Energy......Page 591
PROBLEMS......Page 593
REFERENCES......Page 595
B.1 Probability Theory......Page 606
B.2 Random Variables......Page 607
B.3 Random Processes......Page 612
B.4 Gaussian Processes......Page 615
REFERENCES......Page 616
C.1 Matrices and Vectors......Page 617
C.2 Matrix and Vector Operations......Page 618
C.3 Matrix Decompositions......Page 621
D.1.2 First-Generation Analog Systems......Page 624
D.1.2 Second-Generation Digital Systems......Page 625
D.1.3 Evolution of Second-Generation Systems......Page 627
D.1.4 Third-Generation Systems......Page 628
D.2 Wireless Local Area Networks......Page 629
D.3 Wireless Short-Distance Networking Standards......Page 630
Index......Page 634