Wind Energy Modeling and Simulation: Volume 2: Turbine and system

Cover
Disclaimer
Contents
Preface
List of acronyms
1 Aerodynamics: turning wind into mechanical motion
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Steady blade element momentum method
1.3 Unsteady BEM
1.4 Lifting line model and explaining Prandtl's tip-loss correction
1.5 Limitations to the simpler aerodynamic models
References
2 Wind turbine aero-servo-elasticity and dynamics
2.1 Aero-servo-elastic modeling
2.1.1 Nonlinear equations of motion
2.1.2 Structural dissipation
2.1.2.1 Viscous damping
2.1.2.2 Friction
2.1.3 Generalized forces
2.1.3.1 Bearing moments
2.1.3.2 Aerodynamic forces
2.1.4 Aero-servo-elastic state-space model
2.1.5 Existing codes
2.2 Modal dynamics
2.2.1 Linear equation of structural motion
2.2.2 Modal dynamics of 2-and 3-bladed turbines
2.3 Aeroelastic stability
2.3.1 Linear aeroelastic equations of motion
2.3.2 Aerodynamic damping
2.3.2.1 Example of stall-induced vibrations
2.3.2.2 Conclusion
2.3.3 Classical flutter
2.3.3.1 Example of flutter analysis
2.3.3.2 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
3 Rotor design and analysis
3.1 The design process
3.1.1 Goals and requirements
3.1.2 Certification standards
3.2 Simulation models
3.2.1 Aeroservoelastic models
3.2.1.1 Element models
3.2.1.2 Aerodynamic models
3.2.2 FEM models
3.2.3 Quantification of uncertainties
3.3 Multidisciplinary design optimization
3.3.1 Figures of merit and cost models
3.3.2 Aerodynamic blade design
3.3.3 Structural design
3.3.4 Aero-structural design
3.4 Applications
3.4.1 Design of a reference onshore wind turbine
3.4.2 Investigation of passive load alleviation methods
3.4.3 Design of a reference offshore wind turbine rotor
Acknowledgment
References
4 Drivetrain analysis for reliable design
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Gearbox
4.2.1 Common reliability issues and system design overview
4.2.2 Design requirements
4.2.2.1 Gear design criteria
4.2.2.2 Bearing selection criteria
4.2.2.3 Design requirements for other gearbox components
4.2.2.4 Gear macrogeometry design and bearing selection
4.2.2.5 Gear microgeometry design
4.2.3 Design certification
4.2.4 Design for robustness and manufacturing
4.2.5 Static strength rating and life modelling
4.2.5.1 System-level misalignment analysis
4.2.5.2 Gear life modelling
4.2.5.3 Bearing life modelling
4.2.6 Dynamics modelling
4.2.6.1 Gear body modelling
4.2.6.2 Gear mesh stiffness modelling
4.2.6.3 Bearing modelling
4.2.6.4 Contact mechanics modelling
4.2.6.5 Gearbox trunnion (torque arms) modelling
4.2.6.6 Excitation source and vibration limits
4.3 Main shaft and bearing
4.3.1 Modelling for design
4.4 Summary
Acknowledgement
References
5 Offshore turbines with bottom-fixed or floating substructures
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Offshore substructures
5.1.2 General introduction into modeling of substructures in offshore wind
5.1.3 Interfaces
5.1.4 Modeling of hydrodynamic loads
5.1.5 Coupling schemes
5.1.6 Practical modeling challenges
5.2 Ocean wave modeling
5.2.1 Statistical descriptions
5.2.2 Potential flow models
5.2.3 Linear wave theory
5.2.4 Frequency-domain representation
5.2.5 Nonlinear wave theories
5.2.6 Computational fluid dynamics approaches
5.2.7 Breaking waves
5.2.8 Extreme waves
5.2.9 Typhoons and hurricanes
5.2.10 Directional spreading
5.2.11 Currents
5.3 Wave–structure interaction
5.3.1 Hydrostatics
5.3.2 Fixed structures
5.3.3 Floating structures: linear theory
5.3.3.1 Frequency-to-time-domain transformation
5.3.3.2 Parametric models
5.3.3.3 Second-order slow-drift forces
5.3.4 Morison's equation
5.3.5 Identification from model tests
5.3.6 Hydro-elasticity
5.3.7 Wave overtopping and green water
5.3.8 Mooring system interaction
5.3.8.1 Quasi-static models
5.3.8.2 Dynamic models
5.3.8.3 Other mooring line modeling aspects
5.3.9 Representation of viscous effects
5.3.10 Vortex-induced vibrations
5.3.11 Ringing
5.3.12 Wave–soil interaction/erosion
5.3.13 Ice–structure interaction
5.4 Limitations and current developments
References
6 Wind turbine control design
6.1 Wind turbine controls introduction
6.1.1 Overview
6.1.2 Sensors and actuators
6.1.3 Operating regions
6.1.4 Feedback control loops
6.2 Modeling for controller development
6.2.1 Control development process overview
6.2.2 Detailed simulation model
6.2.3 Simulation cases
6.3 Basic operational controller design
6.3.1 Step 1: Define controller objectives
6.3.2 Steps 2 and 3: Develop simplified dynamic models and synthesize controller
6.3.2.1 Generator torque controller
6.3.2.2 Rotor collective-pitch controller
6.3.3 Step 4: Simulate controller performance
6.3.3.1 Additional objectives
6.3.3.2 Blade pitch actuators
6.3.3.3 Controller simulation testing
6.4 Advanced controller design methods
6.4.1 Linear state-space models
6.4.2 Multivariable state-space control design methods
6.4.2.1 Full state feedback and state-estimator-based controllers
6.4.2.2 Other advanced control design approaches
6.4.3 State-estimator-based controller development example
6.4.3.1 Region 3 rotor collective pitch controller
6.4.3.2 Adding actuator dynamics
6.5 Special topics
6.5.1 Lidar feedforward controls
6.5.1.1 Perfect feedforward control
6.5.1.2 Lidar error sources
6.5.1.3 Lidar scanning configuration and setup
6.5.1.4 Correlation
6.5.1.5 Additional feedforward control concepts
6.5.1.6 Lidar feedforward controller simulation testing
6.5.1.7 Lidar controller field testing
6.5.2 Individual blade pitch control
6.5.2.1 Axis transformations
6.5.2.2 Independent blade pitch controller simulations
6.5.3 "Smart" rotor control
6.5.3.1 Overall idea
6.5.3.2 Smart rotor control design, simulation, and testing
6.5.4 Control of offshore floating turbines
6.5.4.1 Background
6.5.4.2 Stability issues
6.5.4.3 Classical and advanced control design
6.5.4.4 Controller simulation testing
6.6 Summary
Acknowledgment
References
7 Systems engineering and optimization of wind turbines and power plants
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Optimization-based design
7.2.1 From analysis to optimization
7.2.2 From traditional design to optimization-driven design
7.2.3 From single-disciplinary to multidisciplinary optimization
7.2.4 Additional complexity: discrete variables, multiple objectives, decisions over time, and uncertainty
7.3 Wind turbine design optimization
7.3.1 Unique challenges for wind turbine optimization
7.3.1.1 Reduced-order models
7.3.1.2 Simplified physics and managing uncertainty
7.3.1.3 Gradients
7.3.2 Higher fidelity approaches and unsteady aeroelastic modeling
7.3.3 Research and industry applications of wind turbine optimization
7.4 Wind power plant design optimization
7.4.1 Unique challenges of wind power plant optimization
7.4.1.1 Wind power plant optimization subsystems, disciplines, and design variables
7.4.1.2 Wind power plant optimization approaches
7.4.2 Higher fidelity approaches and addressing uncertainty
7.4.2.1 High-fidelity and multifidelity optimization
7.4.2.2 Optimization under uncertainty
7.4.3 Research and industry applications of wind power plant optimization
7.5 Managing the design process: standards, frameworks, and data management
7.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
8 Wind plant electrical systems: electrical generation, machines, power electronics, and collector systems
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Wind energy conversion
8.3 Types of wind-turbine generator
8.3.1 Type 1—fixed-speed wind-turbine generator
8.3.1.1 Normal operation
8.3.1.2 Short circuit
8.3.2 Type 2—variable-slip wind-turbine generator
8.3.2.1 Normal operation
8.3.2.2 Short circuit
8.3.3 Type 3—variable-speed wind-turbine generator
8.3.3.1 Normal operation
8.3.3.2 Short circuit
8.3.4 Type 4—full-conversion wind-turbine generator
8.3.4.1 Normal operation
8.3.4.2 Short circuit
8.4 Collector systems
8.4.1 General overview and assumptions
8.4.2 Connection at the trunk line level
8.4.3 Shunt representation
8.4.4 Pad mount transformer representation
8.5 Power plant
8.5.1 System integration
8.5.2 Wind power plant
8.5.3 Summary of SCC contribution for different types of WTG
8.5.4 Generator interconnection
8.5.4.1 Type 1 and Type 2—induction-generator-basedWPP
8.5.4.2 Type 3 and Type 4—inverter interface-basedWPP
8.5.4.3 TheWPP shall provide adequate protective devices
8.5.4.4 Protection devices which may be required to satisfy the above requirements
8.6 Appendix I (from [10])
Acknowledgment
References
9 Grid modeling with wind plants
9.1 Modeling the regional/national/international grid with wind plants
9.1.1 Introduction/overview
9.1.2 Modeling objectives: study design and priorities
9.1.3 Lessons learned
9.2 Bulk power systems
9.2.1 Bulk-power-system operations
9.2.2 Bulk-power-system planning
9.2.2.1 Priorities for bulk system operations and planning analysis
9.2.3 Renewable integration study design
9.2.4 Analytical methods
9.3 Scenario development: preparatory stage
9.3.1 Scenario development overview
9.3.1.1 Scenarios: renewable energy targets and integrated resource plans
9.3.1.2 Sensitivity analysis design
9.3.2 Wind and solar data: resource and location
9.3.3 Existing system data
9.3.4 Portfolio development
9.3.4.1 Generation additions
9.3.4.2 Generation retirements
9.3.4.3 Energy storage
9.3.5 Network scenarios
9.3.5.1 Transmission
9.3.5.2 Network assets
9.3.5.3 Load levels
9.3.5.4 Load characteristics
9.3.6 Statistical analysis and reserves requirements
9.3.7 Scenario examples
9.3.7.1 Example wind development
9.3.7.2 Example transmission scenario
9.3.7.3 Example load–wind–solar synthesis
9.3.7.4 Example reserves analysis
9.4 Capacity-value analysis
9.4.1 LOLE analysis
9.4.2 System modeling assumptions for wind studies
9.5 Hourly production simulation
9.5.1 Hourly analysis overview
9.5.2 General modeling assumptions
9.5.2.1 Generation mix and operations practice
9.5.2.2 Fuel price projections
9.5.2.3 Transmission
9.5.2.4 Unit maintenance
9.5.2.5 Reserve/ancillary service requirements
9.5.2.6 Demand response
9.5.2.7 Import/export assumptions
9.5.2.8 Benchmarking of model results with actual data
9.5.3 Example production simulation results
9.5.4 Sub-hourly production simulation
9.6 Grid modeling and bulk system dynamics
9.6.1 Loadflow and stability analysis
9.6.2 Integration of wind plant models into grid databases
9.6.2.1 Example stability results
9.6.3 Time-sequential static analysis
9.6.4 Distribution system analysis
9.6.4.1 Maximum hosting capacity
9.7 Mitigation and synthesis
9.7.1 Mitigation requirements and options
9.7.2 Results synthesis
9.8 Discussion and recommendations
9.8.1 Data availability and importance
9.8.2 Recommendations
References
Index
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