White Wine Technology

Front Cover
White Wine Technology
Copyright Page
Contents
List of contributors
Prologue
1 Assessment and control of grape maturity and quality
1.1 White grape quality parameters
1.2 Chemical parameters related to the quality of white wine grapes
1.2.1 Grape technological ripeness: primary metabolites
1.2.2 Nitrogenous compounds
1.2.3 Phenolic compounds
1.2.4 Volatile compounds
1.3 Monitoring grape characteristics through analytical control and sensory and remote assessments
1.3.1 Analytical control of basic metabolites
1.3.2 Analytical control of aromatic potential
1.3.3 Sensory and visual assessment of grape quality
1.3.4 Remote sensing assessment of grape quality and yield
References
2 White grape quality monitoring via hyperspectral imaging: from the vineyard to the winery
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Hyperspectral imaging
2.1.2 HSI processing
2.2 Vineyard-level applications
2.2.1 Grapevine variety recognition
2.2.2 Vineyard hydric status
2.2.3 Chlorosis diagnosis
2.2.4 Virus detection
2.3 Grape maturity assessment
2.3.1 Phenolic maturity
2.3.2 Aromatic compounds determination
2.4 Conclusion and future trends
Funding
Conflicts of interest
References
3 Use of glutathione in the winemaking of white grape varieties
3.1 Glutathione: Structure and properties
3.2 Glutathione content in white varieties and evolution through winemaking
3.3 Glutathione application during the production and preservation of white wines
3.4 Effects of glutathione application on white wine quality
3.4.1 Influence on glutathione content
3.4.2 Influence on the nitrogen composition
3.4.3 Influence on aromatic composition
3.4.4 Influence on phenolic composition
3.4.5 Influence on sensorial characteristics
Acknowledgments
References
4 White must extraction methods
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Traditional production process in high-volume wineries
4.2.1 Destemming and crushing of white grapes
4.2.2 Must extraction by dejuicer and continuous pressing
4.2.2.1 Continuous presses
4.3 Current production process in high-volume wineries
4.3.1 Separation of grape must by decanter centrifuge
4.4 Juice extraction process in high-quality white wines
4.4.1 Pneumatic presses
4.5 Conclusion
References
5 White must preservation by ultra-high pressure homogenization without SO2
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Origin and basis of UHPH technology
5.3 Overview of UHPH employment in different food matrices treated by UHPH
5.4 Must sterilization
5.5 Oxidation control
5.6 Improvement in the implantation of non-Saccharomyces yeasts
5.7 Deseasonalization of wine production
5.8 Sensory impact of the use of UHPH
5.9 Conclusion and future prospects
References
6 Use of pulsed electric fields in white grape processing
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Principles of PEF processing
6.2.1 The electroporation phenomenon
6.2.2 Generation of PEF and PEF treatment system
6.3 PEF applications in white winemaking
6.3.1 Improving juice extraction yield from white grapes by PEF
6.3.2 Improving the extraction of aroma precursor compounds from white grapes by PEF
6.3.3 Microbial inactivation by PEF in white winemaking
6.3.4 Application of PEF for acceleration of yeast autolysis and aging on lees
6.4 Conclusion
References
7 Ultrasound to process white grapes
7.1 What is ultrasound? Definition and basic parameters
7.2 Basic parameters of US
7.2.1 Frequency
7.2.2 Ultrasonic energy
7.2.3 Amplitude
7.2.4 Exposure/contact time
7.2.5 Treatment conditions
7.3 Ultrasound devices for processing grapes and wines
7.4 Possible uses of US in white wine technology
7.4.1 Microbiological control and SO2 reduction
7.4.2 Enzymatic control
7.4.3 Extraction of aroma compounds during grape processing
7.4.4 Extraction of oak compounds into wine
7.4.5 Ultrasound and aging on lees
7.5 Final remarks
References
8 Settling. Clarification of musts
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Technological and qualitative impact
8.3 Characteristics of suspended solids in musts
8.3.1 Contents
8.3.2 Size distribution, aggregation
8.3.3 Composition
8.4 Must cleaning—clarification techniques
8.4.1 Settling
8.4.2 Centrifugation
8.4.3 Flotation
8.4.4 Clarification of lees and flotation foams
8.5 Conclusion
References
9 Application of Hanseniaspora vineae to improve white wine quality
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Hanseniaspora in grapes and wine
9.2 Characterization of species and strain diversity
9.2.1 Strain diversity within Hanseniaspora: Fermentation capacity
9.2.2 Strain diversity within Hanseniaspora: Aroma compounds
9.3 Mixed cultures with Saccharomyces cerevisiae
9.3.1 Nutrient management during vinification
9.4 Flavor impact of Hanseniaspora vineae in white wines
9.4.1 Aroma complexity and nitrogen metabolism
9.4.2 Impact on taste and palate
9.4.2.1 Glycerol
9.4.2.2 Polysaccharides, mannoproteins, and cell autolysis
9.4.2.3 Protease activity
9.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
10 Improving white wine aroma and structure by non-Saccharomyces yeasts
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Non-Saccharomyces mixed fermentation
10.3 Yeast interaction in mixed fermentation for white wine production
10.4 Biocontrol activity of non-Saccharomyces
10.5 NS aroma and structure of white wine
10.5.1 Torulaspora sp
10.5.2 Lachancea sp
10.5.3 Metschnikowia sp
10.5.4 Pichia sp
10.5.5 Starmerella spp
10.5.6 Zygosaccharomyces spp
10.5.7 Hanseniaspora spp
10.5.8 Schizosaccharomyces spp
10.6 Conclusions
References
11 Biological acidification by Lachancea thermotolerans
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Microbiological and molecular identification
11.2.1 Selective and differential media
11.2.2 Molecular techniques
11.3 Commercially available strains of Lachancea thermotolerans
11.4 Lactic acid production and pH control during fermentation
11.4.1 pH control
11.4.2 Reduction of ethanol content
11.4.3 Lachancea thermotolerans and malolactic fermentation
11.4.4 Alternative fermentation biotechnologies with Lachancea thermotolerans
11.5 Nutritional requirements
11.6 Effect of pH on SO2 levels and wine stability
11.7 Impact on wine sensory profile
11.7.1 Acidity and freshness
11.7.2 Aroma
11.7.3 Color
11.8 Biocontrol by Lachancea thermotolerans
11.9 Special wines
11.9.1 Sweet wines
11.9.2 Sparkling wines
11.10 Conclusions
References
12 Nitrogen management during fermentation
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Nitrogen metabolism in yeasts
12.2.1 Saccharomyces cerevisiae
12.2.1.1 Assimilation of nitrogen sources
12.2.1.2 Role of nitrogen in volatile compound metabolism
12.2.2 Non-Saccharomyces yeasts
12.3 Assimilable nitrogen in musts
12.3.1 YAN measurement
12.3.2 YAN concentrations in musts
12.3.3 Effect of YAN on the kinetics of fermentation
12.3.4 Nitrogen is not always limiting
12.4 Nitrogen management
12.4.1 Control of fermentation kinetics
12.4.1.1 Case of “slow fermentations”
12.4.1.2 Case of sluggish and stuck fermentations
12.4.1.3 Case of very clarified musts
12.4.2 Impact on production of fermentative aromas by Saccharomyces cerevisiae
12.5 Prospect
References
13 Tasting the terroir of wine yeast innovation
13.1 The past and future of wine is ever present in its tradition of innovation
13.2 Stamping yeast signatures onto the terroir and vintage labels of wine
13.2.1 Yeasts from somewhere
13.2.2 Yeasts from everywhere
13.2.3 Yeasts from anywhere
13.2.4 Yeasts from elsewhere
13.2.5 Yeasts from nowhere
13.3 Linking yeast with wine quality and consumer gratification
13.3.1 Flavor-active non-Saccharomyces wine yeasts
13.3.2 Flavor-active Saccharomyces wine yeasts
13.4 Inventing a brighter future for wine with yeast
Acknowledgments
References
14 Malolactic fermentation in white wines
14.1 Effect of MLF on pH changes
14.2 MLF as a bioprotection agent
14.3 Impact of MLF on wine organoleptic properties
14.4 New findings, new ways to employ MLF, and new applications
Acknowledgments
References
15 Pinking
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Origin of the pinking phenomena of white wines
15.3 Pinking of Síria white wines
15.4 Methods to predict the pinking susceptibility of white wine
15.5 Preventive and curative treatments for pinking
15.6 Conclusions
References
16 Origin, prevention, and mitigation of light-struck taste in white wine
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Origin of the light-struck taste
16.3 Preventive treatments and strategies to avoid light-struck taste in white wines
16.4 Conclusions
References
17 White wine polyphenols and health
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Wine and polyphenols
17.3 Bioactive components in white wine
17.3.1 Grape polyphenols
17.3.2 Other bioactive compounds
17.4 Putative positive health effects of white wine and components and mechanisms involved
17.5 Wine, lifestyle, and sociological factors
17.6 Alcohol risks
17.7 Conclusions
References
18 Enzyme applications in white wine
18.1 Introduction to wine enzymes
18.1.1 Definition, structure, and action mechanism
18.2 Enzyme origin, production, nomenclature, and regulation
18.2.1 Enzyme origin
18.2.2 Production systems
18.2.3 Nomenclature and regulation
18.3 Enzymes in winemaking
18.3.1 Grape structure and content
18.3.2 Endogenous enzymes in grape and juice
18.3.3 Exogenous enological enzymes used in white winemaking
18.3.3.1 Principal activities
18.3.3.1.1 Pectinases
18.3.3.1.2 Glycosidases
18.3.3.1.3 β-glucanases
18.3.3.1.4 Proteases (under OIV evaluation)
18.3.3.2 Secondary activities
18.3.3.3 Lysozyme
18.4 Enzyme application in white wine
18.4.1 Prefermentative steps
18.4.1.1 Skin contact
18.4.1.2 Juice extraction/pressing
18.4.1.3 Juice clarification: static settling and flotation
18.4.2 Fermentative and postfermentative steps
18.4.2.1 Aging on lees
18.4.2.2 Glycosylated aroma release
18.4.2.3 Wine clarification, stabilization, and filtration
18.5 Conclusions
References
19 Near infrared for white wine analysis
19.1 Introduction
19.2 NIR spectroscopy analysis
19.3 Multivariate analysis of chemometrics
19.4 Application of NIR and chemometrics for white wine analysis
19.5 Summary
References
20 Aging on lees
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Definition of wine lees
20.3 Main constituents of wine lees and their modifications during aging
20.3.1 Microbiological composition of lees
20.3.2 Chemical composition of lees
20.3.2.1 Polysaccharides
20.3.2.2 Nitrogen compounds
20.3.2.3 Lipids
20.3.2.4 Other components of yeast lees
20.4 Yeast autolysis and autophagy
20.4.1 Autophagy in yeasts
20.4.2 Autolysis of yeast cell
20.5 Technological management of aging on lees
20.5.1 Aging on lees in still wines
20.5.1.1 Aging in wood barrels
20.5.1.2 Aging in stainless steel vats
20.5.2 Aging on lees in sparkling wines
20.5.2.1 Classic method
20.5.2.2 Martinotti–Charmat method
20.5.2.3 Other applications of aging on lees in sparkling wine production
20.6 Impact of AOL on wine aroma and sensory characteristics
20.7 Microbiological aspects connected with aging on lees
20.8 Technologies for accelerating aging on lees
20.8.1 Use of enzymes
20.8.2 Emerging technologies for accelerating aging on lees
Acknowledgments
References
21 Barrel aging of white wines
21.1 Brief historical introduction
21.2 The main tree species used in cooperage and what they contribute to wine
21.3 The different procedures for making white wines in barrels
21.4 Enological consequences of yeast autolysis
21.5 Lees stirring and its importance
21.6 Organoleptic consequences of the different procedures for making white wines in barrels
References
22 Use of different wood species for white wine production: wood composition and impact on wine quality
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Composition of different wood species
22.3 Different wood species used in white wine production
22.3.1 Impact on white wines chemical composition
22.3.2 Impact on white wines sensory profile
22.4 Final remarks
References
23 Impacts of phenolics and prefermentation antioxidant additions on wine aroma
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Polyphenol oxidation
23.2.1 Wine oxidation linked to polyphenol content
23.2.2 Oxygen and its activation in wine
23.2.3 Roles of catalytic metals in polyphenol oxidation
23.3 Oxidation effects on aroma compounds
23.4 Influence of wine antioxidants
23.4.1 Sulfur dioxide
23.4.2 Glutathione
23.4.3 Ascorbic acid
23.5 Enzymatic oxidation of musts
23.5.1 Harvesting methods and juice oxidation
23.5.2 Polyphenol oxidase and hyperoxygenation
23.5.3 Changes in C6 aroma compounds postharvest
23.5.4 Varietal thiol formation
23.6 Applications of antioxidants at harvest
23.6.1 Sulfur dioxide
23.6.2 Glutathione and ascorbic acid
23.7 Concluding remarks
References
24 A glance into the aroma of white wine
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Source of volatile compounds in white wine
24.2.1 Varietal aroma
24.2.2 C13-norisoprenoids
24.2.3 Methoxypyrazine
24.2.4 Volatile thiols
24.2.5 Volatile compounds produced during fermentation (fermentation aroma)
24.2.6 Volatile compounds produced during aging (aging aroma)
24.3 Factors that influence aroma profile of white wine
24.3.1 Varietal differences
24.3.2 Environmental conditions
24.3.3 Fermentation managements
24.3.4 Glycosidase treatment
24.3.5 Matrix effects
24.4 A fast-growing determination method for key volatile compounds in wines: gas chromatography–olfactometry
24.5 Conclusion
References
25 Inertization and bottling
25.1 Hazards to white wines
25.1.1 Hazard of microorganisms
25.1.2 Oxygen
25.1.3 Precipitations in the bottle
25.1.4 Chemical contamination
25.1.5 Physical contamination
25.2 Physical damage of bottles
25.2.1 Fillers
25.2.2 Filling level adjustment
25.2.3 Bursting of bottle during filling
25.2.4 Microbiological problems of fillers
25.2.5 Temperature during filling
25.3 Closing systems
25.3.1 Screw caps
25.3.2 Cork
25.3.3 Leaky closures
25.4 Pasteurization and preservatives
25.4.1 Preservatives
25.4.2 Pasteurization
25.5 Labeling
25.6 Shelf life
25.7 Extortion
25.8 Effectivity of bottling white wine
25.9 Future tasks in wine bottling
References
26 White winemaking in cold climates
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Vitis vinifera varieties, clones, and rootstocks for cold climates
26.3 Methoxypyrazines in white wines
26.3.1 Sources and significance of methoxypyrazines
26.3.1.1 Managing methoxypyrazines in cool climate whites
26.4 White winemaking with skin contact
26.5 Protein stability in white wines
26.6 Icewine production and factors impacting the aroma profile
26.7 Conclusion
References
27 White winemaking in cold regions with short maturity periods in Northwest China
27.1 Introduction
27.2 White wine market in China
27.3 General climatic and agronomic conditions of cold regions in China
27.4 Buried viticulture
27.5 Grape varieties in the cold regions of China
27.6 Chemical composition of grapes and must
27.6.1 Sugars and organic acids compounds
27.6.2 Phenolic compounds of grapes and wine
27.6.3 Volatile compounds of grapes and wine
27.7 Wine composition as influenced by winemaking technology
27.8 Innovations in winemaking in cold regions
Acknowledgment
References
Further reading
28 Dealcoholization of white wines
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Sensory effect of ethanol
28.2.1 Sensory effect of partial alcohol reduction
28.3 Different approaches for alcohol reduction
28.3.1 Viticultural strategies
28.3.2 Microbiological approaches
28.3.3 Alcohol reduction by physical methods
28.3.3.1 Vacuum distillation
28.3.3.2 Spinning cone column
28.3.3.3 Osmotic distillation
28.3.3.4 Coupling of nanofiltration or reverse osmosis with further treatments
References
29 White wine tasting: Understanding taster responses based on flavor neuronal processing
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Neuronal processing of sensory stimuli
29.2.1 The peculiarity of olfaction
29.2.1.1 The comparison with visual images
29.2.1.2 Olfaction as an emotional sense
29.2.2 Descriptive analysis of odors
29.2.3 Descriptive analysis of emotions
29.2.4 Flavor has an integrative sense
29.2.5 The high range of sensory sensitivities
29.2.6 The perceptual features of expertise in odor analysis
29.2.7 The top-down and bottom-up processing of information
29.3 Technical tasting approaches
29.3.1 Multipoint score sheets
29.3.1.1 Technical and popular scoresheets
29.3.2 Scoresheets as style preference indicators
29.3.3 Indications for good tasting practices and challenge organization
29.4 The evaluation of fine wines
29.4.1 Synthetic properties
29.4.2 Preferences and aesthetic assessment
29.4.2.1 The top-down induced bias: the halo and familiarity effects
29.4.2.2 Widening the range of perceived quality
29.5 Understanding wine styles based on emotional tasting responses
29.5.1 The emotional wine tasting sheet
29.5.2 A proposal for wine systematic tasting at the winery level
29.5.2.1 Quality concept
29.5.2.2 Grape growing and wine manipulation
29.5.2.3 Complexity and harmonious persistence
29.5.2.4 Aging potential
29.5.2.5 Sense of place
29.5.2.6 Gastronomic potential
29.5.2.7 The price
29.6 Final considerations
References
Index
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