Western Influences in the History of Science and Technology in Modern China: History of Science and Technology in China

Contents
Contributors
1 Mei Wending, Wang Xichan, and Xue Fengzuo: Chinese Scholars´ Attitude Toward Western Science in Early Qing Dynasty
1.1 Lives of the Three Scholars
1.2 Connection Among the Three Scholars
1.3 The Three Scholars´ Attitude Toward Western Astronomy
1.4 The Three Scholars´ Attitude Toward Western Mathematics
1.5 Academic Styles and Study Methods of the Three Scholars
1.6 In Lieu of an Epilogue: Social Change in Early Qing Dynasty Reflected in the Three Scholars´ Lives
Reference
2 Translation of Euclid´s Elements and Evolution of Mathematical Thoughts in Ming and Qing Dynasties Periods
2.1 1600: China and the World in Guangqi Xu´s Era
2.2 Implications of Euclid´s Elements to China´s Conventional Mathematics
2.3 Translation and Analysis of Volume 1 ``Definitions´´ of Euclid´s Elements
2.3.1 Determination of Terminology in ``Definitions´´
2.3.2 Grammatical Structure of ``Definitions´´
2.4 ``Definitions´´ Translation Analysis
2.5 ``Golden Needles´´ and ``Lovebirds´´
2.6 From ``Translation´´ and ``Comprehension´´ to ``Surpassing´´
2.6.1 ``Translation´´
2.6.2 ``Comprehension´´
2.6.3 ``Surpassing´´
2.7 Euclid´s Elements and Evolution of Mathematical Thoughts in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties Periods
2.8 Completion of Translation of the Elements and Reflections
References
3 Ferdinand Verbiest and on the Newly Made Astronomical Instruments
3.1 Astronomical Instruments in Ancient China and How They Were Made
3.2 Ferdinand Verbiest and on the Newly Made Astronomical Instruments
3.2.1 The Zodiac Longitude and Latitude Globe
3.2.2 The Equator Longitude and Latitude Globe
3.2.3 The Horizon Circle
3.2.4 The Quadrant
3.2.5 The Sextant
3.2.6 The Celestial Globe
3.3 Main Improvements on the Newly Made Instruments
3.3.1 Scale Marks and Negative Circle Scale with Expanded Marks
3.3.2 On Firmness of the New Instruments
3.3.3 Sighting Instrument and Devices
3.3.4 Characteristics of Verbiest´s Design
3.3.5 Adjusting the Instruments
3.3.6 Manufacturing Techniques of the Instruments
3.4 Installation and Use of the Newly Made Instruments
3.4.1 Establishing Directions and Altitude of the North Pole
3.4.2 Usage
3.5 New Physics on the Newly Made Astronomical Instruments
Reference
4 From the Western Techniques to the Imperial Techniques: Official Absorption of Western Astronomy in the Ming and Qing Dynast...
4.1 I. Crisis of Calendrical Science: The Dilemma of Chinese Calendrical System and the Hope of Western Calendrical System
4.2 II. Materials and Model: Compilation of Chong Zhen Li Shu () Chong-Zhen Reign-Period Treatise on (Astronomy and) Calendric...
4.3 III. Debates over the Chinese and Western Styles: Adoption of the Western Astronomy in the Qing Dynasty and the Correspond...
4.4 IV. Aspiration for Independence: Appropriation of the Western Astronomy by Emperor Kangxi in the Qing Dynasty
4.5 V. The Unsettled Debate: The Assimilation of Western Astronomy After the Reign of Emperor Kangxi
References
5 From Casting to Forging: The Emergence of Wrought Iron Firearms in the Late Ming Dynasty
5.1 General Cannon in the Early Ming Dynasty
5.2 Localization of the Portuguese Culverins
5.3 Development and Application of New Firearms
5.3.1 Ye Mengxiong and Lord Ye Cannon
5.3.2 War in North Korea
5.3.3 Material Object of Lord Ye Cannon
5.3.4 Long-Range Awe-Inspiring Cannon and Magic Trigger Cannon
5.4 How to Make a Wrought Iron Cannon
5.4.1 Refining Wrought Iron
5.4.2 Production of Guns and Cannons
5.5 Discussions
References
6 Toys and Physics: Introduction of Europe Physics Toys into China and Their Influence
6.1 Physics Toys and the Development of Modern Western Physics
6.2 Light and Shadow Games in the Qing Royal Palace
6.3 Bizarre Objects in Churches and Miraculous Folks
6.4 From Toys to Physics
6.5 Physical Instruments and Toys That Had Been Ignored
References
7 Dissemination of Translated Literature on China´s Modern Mathematics in Japan and Their Influence
7.1 The Background of the Chinese Translation of the Western Mathematics in the East in the Late Qing Dynasty
7.2 Enlightenment in Mathematics and Elementary Mathematics Education in Modern Japan
7.2.1 Textbook of Mathematics () and Enlightenment in Mathematics ()
7.2.2 Formative Education of Arithmetic () and Enlightenment in Mathematics ()
7.3 Dai Wei Ji Shi Ji () (The Chinese Translation of Analytical Geometry and Calculus) in Japan and Its Impact
7.4 Dissemination of Dai Shu () Science of Algebra and Its Influence
7.4.1 The Author of the Japanese Annotation Version of Dai Shu Shu () Science of Algebra and the Studies of Mathematics
7.4.2 Characteristics of Japanese Annotation Version of Dai Shu Shu () Science of Algebra and Their Influence
7.5 Japanese Scholars´ Studies of Wei Ji Su Yuan () Origins of Calculus and Its Reference
7.6 Elements of Geometry () and the Spread of Western Geometry in Japan
7.6.1 How Euclidean Geometry Got Spread in Japan at the Beginning
7.6.2 Relations Between Notes to Elements of Geometry () and the Chinese Translation and Modern Japanese Versions of Euclidean...
References
8 The Xujiahui Observatory: The European Observatory in China
8.1 The General Development of the Xujiahui Observatory
8.2 The Establishment of the Earliest Meteorological Observatory Network in China
8.3 The Development of Astronomy and Astronomical Observation Research
8.3.1 Solar Research: From Daily Observation to Cooperative Research
8.3.2 Asteroid Research and Comet Observation
8.3.3 The Equatorial Star Map
8.4 Other Studies
8.5 The Heyday of Measurement Activities
8.5.1 International Longitude Survey
8.5.2 The Measurement of Gravitational Acceleration
8.5.3 Mapping the China Geomagnetic Map
8.5.4 Summary
8.6 The Decline of the Xujiahui Observatory During War and Its End After War
References
9 The Distribution of Science Books in the Late Qing Dynasty and Its Social Impact
9.1 An Analysis of the Distribution Model of Various Publishers
9.1.1 The Sales Concept and Sales Approach of Church Bookstores for Books
9.1.2 The Sales Model of Science Books of Jiangnan Arsenal and Gezhi Book Company Run by John Fryer
9.1.3 The Approach to Publishing and Distribution of the Emerging Publishers such as the Commercial Press in the Late Qing Dyn...
9.2 The Promotion of Science Books and Its Social Impact
9.2.1 Newspapers as an Instrument to Expand the Social Impact of Science Books
9.2.2 An Analysis on the Social Impact of Several Science Books
9.2.3 Analysis of the People Under the Social Influence of the Science Books in the Late Qing Dynasty
References
10 Case Analysis of Publishing Figures of Scientific Works in the Late Qing Dynasty
10.1 John Fryer´s Historical Contribution to the Dissemination of Science in China
10.1.1 Full-Time Employment Contract with the Translation Department of Kiangnan Arsenal
10.1.2 Essential Difference from Western Missionaries
10.1.3 Further Clarification of Some Confusion Relating to John Fryer
10.2 An Overall Study of the Chinese Writers in the Practice of ``Oral Translation by a Westerner, Recorded with the Brush by ...
10.2.1 Analyzing the Overall Thinking and Behavior Characteristics of Chinese Writers from Their Native Place
10.2.2 Creativity of the Chinese Writers in Book Translation
10.2.3 Limitations of the Chinese Writers
11 Modern Science Education in China
11.1 The Chinese People´s Earliest Contact with Science
11.1.1 Missionaries and Science Education
11.1.2 Learning Western Science Through Exploration
11.1.2.1 Science Education During the Westernization Movement
11.1.2.2 Science Education in the Reform Period
11.2 The Beginning of Science Education in China
11.2.1 The Science Education System
11.2.2 Sending Students Abroad to Study Science and Technology
11.2.3 Science Education in Church Schools in Modern China
11.3 The Development of Science Education in China
11.3.1 The Development of Science Education in the Process of System Regulation
11.3.2 Overseas Education
11.3.3 Science Education in Church Universities
11.4 The Self-Transformation and Establishment of Modern Science Education in China
11.4.1 Learning from the Soviet Union: Faculty Adjustment
11.4.2 The Tortuous Development of Science Education in the Political Movement
11.5 Summary
12 The Formation and Establishment of Modern Engineering Education in China
12.1 The Formation of Modern Engineering Education in China
12.1.1 The Historical Background of Modern Engineering Education in China
12.1.2 The Germination of Modern Engineering Education in China
12.1.3 The Starting Point, Characteristics, Problems, and Causes of Modern Engineering Education in China
12.1.3.1 Starting Point and Level
The Embryonic Form of China Engineering College
The Embryonic Form of China´s Engineering Universities
12.1.3.2 The Main Characteristics of the Budding Period
The Main Goal Was the Training of Military Technical Personnel
The Coexistence of the Dependence on Leading Western Industrialized Countries and the Autonomy of China´s Educational Sovereig...
The Combination of Teaching and Practice, with Emphasis on Training the Students´ Engineering Practical Ability
12.1.3.3 Analysis of the Main Problems and Causes
12.2 The Formation of Modern Engineering Education System in China
12.2.1 The Guimao Educational System and the Establishment of China´s Modern Engineering Education System
12.2.1.1 Regulations of the Guimao Educational System on Engineering Education Institutions
12.2.1.2 Guimao Educational System Regulations on the Discipline and Curriculum of Engineering Education
Discipline Division and the Curriculum Setting of Engineering Universities
The Discipline and Curriculum of Higher Industrial Schools
12.2.2 The Actual Running of Engineering Education Institutions During the Guimao Educational System
12.2.2.1 The Foundation of University Engineering Education
12.2.2.2 The Rise of Engineering Colleges and Their General Situation with Running Schools
The Rise of Engineering Colleges
The Curriculum and Its Implementation
Experiment and Practice
12.2.2.3 Graduation Examination and Appointment of Graduates
12.2.3 The Historical Position of Engineering Education During the Educational System Period
13 The Twists and Turns of Modern Science and Technology Established in China in the Twentieth Century
13.1 The Foundation of Modern Science and Technology (the First Half of Twentieth Century)
13.1.1 Educational Revolution and the Development of Modern Basic Science Education
13.1.2 The Establishment of a Modern University System
13.1.3 The Establishment and Development of Specialized Scientific Research Institutions
13.1.4 The Development of Scientific Organizations
13.1.5 The Destruction of Science Through Japan´s Invasion of China
13.1.6 The Scientific and Technological Heritage of the Republic of China
13.2 The Development of Contemporary Science and Technology in China (Second Half of the Twentieth Century)
13.2.1 ``Planned Science´´
13.2.2 The Achievements of ``Planned Science´´
13.2.3 Scientific and Technological System Reform Oriented Towards Economic Construction
13.2.4 The Strategy of Rejuvenating the Country Through Science and Education and the Construction of the National Innovation ...
13.2.5 The Important Task of Scientific and Technological System Reform
14 Preventing the Plague: The Beginning of Public Health in China
14.1 Taking Orders When Faced with Danger
14.2 Three Historical Plague Pandemics
14.3 Preventing and Controlling the Plague
14.4 International Plague Conference
14.5 The Establishment of the North Manchuria Plague Prevention Service
15 Beijing Union Medical College Hospital and China´s Modern Medical Development
15.1 Union Medical College Hospital in Old Times
15.2 The Reasons to Establish the New Union Medical College Hospital
15.3 Medical Expedition
15.3.1 The First China Medical Commission (April 18, 1914-August 17, 1914)
15.3.2 Publication of the Investigation Report and Its Effect
15.3.3 The Second China Medical Commission (August 7, 1915, to December 27, 1915)
15.4 Impact of the China Medical Commissions of Rockefeller Foundation on Modern Medical Development in China
15.5 Charity Foundation, Medicine, and the Country
References
16 The Purple Mountain Observatory and Modernization of Chinese Astronomy
16.1 Academia Sinica Research Institute of Astronomy: From the Background to Initial Establishment
16.2 The Purple Mountain Observatory
16.3 Early Observations: The Transplantation of Western Astronomy
16.4 Relocation in the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression and the Establishment of the Phoenix Mountain Observatory
16.5 Observations of Solar Eclipse: Retaining Precious Records of Astronomy for the World
16.6 Returning to the Purple Mountain Observatory
References
17 Artificial Synthesis of Crystalline Bovine Insulin
17.1 A Revolutionary Basic Research Project
17.2 Active Exploration and Preliminary Outcomes
17.3 Big Corps Operations
17.4 Restorage, Completion, and Appraisal
17.5 Nobel Prize Nomination
References
18 Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs and Satellites
18.1 Background of Developing Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs and Satellites
18.2 Development of Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs
18.3 Research and Development of Missiles
18.4 Development of Satellites
18.5 Final Thoughts
References
19 ``Needham Problem´´ and the History of Science and Technology in China
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Needham´s Position and Propensity in the Studies of History of Science in China and ``Needham Problem´´
19.3 One of the Keys in Needham Problem: Understanding Science
19.4 Needham´s Viewpoint of History and Needham Problem
19.5 Reflections in the Post-Needham Studies
19.6 Two Examples of Transcending ``Needham Problem´´ Studies
19.6.1 Science and Civilization in China Volume 6 Part 6 Edited by Sivin
19.6.2 Scientific Anthropology and Bray´s Studies
19.7 Final Thoughts
References