Wearable Physical, Chemical and Biological Sensors: Fundamentals, Materials and Applications




Contributors
Contents
Dedication
Chapter 1 - Introduction
Chapter 2 - Materials for wearable sensors
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Materials for wearable (bio)sensors
2.2.1 Designing a wearable (bio)sensor
2.2.2 Substrate materials
2.2.3 Nanomaterial integration for tailored substrate materials
2.2.4 Natural biopolymers
2.3 Functionalization of substrate materials
2.4 Wearables sensors for noninvasive healthcare monitoring
2.5 Conclusion and future perspectives
Declaration of conflict of interest
Acknowledgments
List of acronyms
References
Chapter 3 - Biorecognition elements
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Biorecognition elements in wearable biosensors
3.2.1 Antibodies
3.2.2 Enzymes
3.2.3 Nucleic acid-based recognition elements
3.2.4 Other biorecognition elements
3.2.4.1 Aptamers
3.2.4.2 Affimers
3.2.4.3 CRISPR/Cas
3.2.4.4 Molecularly imprinted polymers
3.2.4.5 Nanozymes
3.2.4.6 Lectin as biorecognition elements
3.3 Immobilization strategies for biorecognition elements
3.3.1 Covalent binding
3.3.2 Crosslinking
3.3.3 Entrapment
3.3.4 Adsorption
3.3.5 Affinity binding
3.3.5.1 Biotin-avidin interaction
3.3.5.2 Antibody-binding proteins
3.4 Applications of wearable biosensors for monitoring body fluids
3.4.1 Sweat
3.4.2 Saliva
3.4.3 Tear
3.5 Current challenges and prospects
Declaration of conflict of interest
List of acronyms
References
Chapter 4 - Signal detection techniques
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Signal transduction in wearable sensors
4.3 Optical detection
4.3.1 Photoplethysmography
4.3.2 Colorimetric detection
4.3.3 Fluorescence detection
4.4 Electrical and electrochemical detection
4.4.1 Electrodes: Fabrication and materials
4.4.2 Electrical/electrochemical detection techniques
4.4.2.1 Potentiometric detection
4.4.2.2 Amperometric detection
4.4.2.3 Voltammetric detection
4.4.2.4 Field-effect transistors-based detection
4.4.3 Multimodal detection
4.5 Conclusions and outlook
List of acronyms
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 5 - Signal enhancement strategies
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Part A—Sample collection via microfluidics
5.3 Fabrication techniques of microfluidic structures
5.3.1 Soft lithography
5.3.2 Wax printing on cellulose-based materials
5.3.3 3-D printing/additive approaches
5.4 Membranes
5.5 Sampling for wearable sensing
5.6 Challenges and future perspectives
5.7 Part B—Nanomaterial-based signal amplification strategies
5.8 Definition
5.9 History
5.10 Features for sensing
5.11 Classification and examples (0-D/1-D/2-D/3-D nanomaterials)
5.11.1 0-D nanomaterials (0DNMs)
5.11.2 1-D nanomaterials (1DNMs)
5.11.3 2-D nanomaterials (2DNMs)
5.11.4 3-D nanomaterials (3DNMs)
5.12 Nanomaterials enhanced strategy
5.12.1 Physical sensors
5.12.2 (Bio)chemical sensors
5.13 Conclusions and future perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 6 - Healthcare data analytics for wearable sensors
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Machine learning at the edge
6.3 Uncertainties in healthcare data
6.4 Data analysis in healthcare using Big Data
6.5 Algorithmic approach for data storage and access
6.6 Signal conditioning, wireless communication, and regulatory landscape
6.7 Conclusion and outlook
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 7 - Wearable physical sensors
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Self-powered wearable physical sensors
7.2.1 Triboelectric nanogenerators
7.2.1.1 Vertical contact-separation mode
7.2.1.2 Lateral sliding mode
7.2.1.3 Single-electrode mode
7.2.1.4 Free-standing triboelectric layer mode
7.2.2 TENG-based physiological sensors
7.2.2.1 Respiratory monitoring
7.2.2.2 Cardiovascular monitoring
7.2.2.3 Motion monitoring
7.2.3 Piezoelectric nanogenerators
7.2.3.1 Introduction to piezoelectricity
7.2.3.2 AC PENGs
7.2.3.3 DC PENGs
7.2.3.4 Noncontact AC PENGs
7.2.4 PENG-based physiological sensors
7.2.4.1 Cardiovascular monitoring
7.2.4.2 Motion monitoring
7.2.4.3 Voice recognition
7.2.4.4 Dermal sensing
7.2.4.5 Gastrointestinal sensing
7.3 Non-self-powered wearable physical sensors
7.3.1 Capacitive
7.3.1.1 Working principle
7.3.1.2 Applications
7.3.2 Electret
7.3.2.1 Working principle
7.3.2.2 Applications
7.3.3 Field-effect transistor (FET)
7.3.3.1 Working principle
7.3.3.2 FET applications
7.3.4 Resistive
7.3.4.1 Working principle
7.3.4.2 Applications
7.4 Conclusions and future perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 8 - Wearable chemosensors
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Chemical biomarkers
8.3 Analytical parameters
8.4 Intrinsic challenges of wearable chemosensors
8.5 Wearable platforms
8.5.1 Sweat sensors
8.5.2 Saliva sensors
8.5.3 Interstitial fluid sensors
8.5.4 Tear sensors
8.6 System integration
8.7 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
List of acronyms
References
Chapter 9 - Wearable Biosensors
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Noninvasive biosensing: eccrine sweat
9.2.1 Sweat as a biofluid source of analytes
9.2.2 Sweat biosensing devices
9.3 Minimally invasive biosensing: dermal ISF
9.3.1 ISF as a biofluid source of analytes
9.3.2 ISF biosensing devices
9.4 Noninvasive biosensing: other body fluids and sources
9.4.1 Saliva, exhaled breath, and tears
9.5 Current challenges and outlook
References
Chapter 10 - Wearable hybrid sensors
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Flexible and stretchable materials
10.3 Electrically conducting materials
10.4 Strategies to manufacture wearable systems
10.5 Applications
10.5.1 Biophysical integrative applications
10.5.2 Biochemical integrative applications
10.5.3 Exploring further applications
10.6 Conclusions and outlook
References
Chapter 11 - Smart-agriculture: wearable devices for plant protection
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Wearable devices for monitoring plant status under stress
11.3 Wearable devices for detecting pesticides from agricultural products and environment
11.3.1 Wearable electrochemical devices
11.3.2 Wearable spectroscopy-based devices
11.3.3 Wearable colorimetric devices
11.4 Current challenges and conclusion
Acknowledgments
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 12 - Internet of wearable things
12.1 Wearables and Internet of Things
12.2 Toward IoWT
12.3 Concluding remarks and future perspectives
References
Index