Wearable Exoskeleton Systems: Design, control and applications

Cover
Contents
Preface
Section 1 Review and overall requirements
1 Lower-limb wearable robotics
Abstract
1.1 Background
1.2 Definition of wearable robotic system
1.3 Promise and potential of wearable robotic systems
1.4 Challenges
1.5 Lower limb wearable systems
1.6 Lower limb orthoses
1.7 Lower limb prostheses
1.8 Lower limb exoskeletons
1.9 Legged rehabilitation
1.10 Future vision
References
2 Review of exoskeletons for medical and service applications: ongoing Research in Europe on Wearable Robots, with focus on lower extremity exoskeletons
Abstract
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 What are wearable robots and lower extremity exoskeletons?
2.1.2 European research funding structure
2.2 Review of recent wearable robot and exoskeleton-related research projects inside Europe
2.2.1 General directions
Acknowledgement
References
3 Soft wearable robots
Abstract
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Soft wearable robots to assist locomotion
3.3 Soft wearable robots to assist the upper extremity
3.4 Soft wearable robots for implantable applications
3.5 Emerging directions in soft wearable robots
References
4 Exploring user requirements for a lower body soft exoskeleton to assist mobility
Abstract
4.1 Introduction
4.2 User-centred design
4.3 XoSoft: a soft lower body exoskeleton to assist mobility
4.4 Identifying users of a soft exoskeleton to assist mobility
4.4.1 Primary users
4.4.1.1 Stroke
4.4.1.2 Incomplete SCI
4.4.1.3 Older adults
4.4.2 Secondary users
4.4.3 Tertiary users
4.5 A mixed methods study to explore users' design requirements
4.5.1 Methods
4.5.1.1 Participants
4.5.1.2 Primary user assessment and interview
4.5.1.3 Secondary user interview
4.5.1.4 Data analysis
4.5.2 Results
4.5.2.1 Existing needs for and experiences of assistive devices
4.5.2.2 Design requirements for wearable assistive devices for mobility
4.5.2.3 User perspectives on a soft assistive exoskeleton concept
4.6 User needs: implications for soft exoskeleton design
4.6.1 Functional requirements
4.6.2 Design and aesthetics
4.6.3 Willingness to use the concept
4.6.4 Alternative assistive devices
4.6.5 Current challenges for soft exoskeleton technologies
4.7 Chapter summary
References
Section 2 Design and control of exoskeletons
References
5 Design and control of spherical shoulder exoskeletons for assistive applications
Abstract
5.1 Introduction
5.2 State-of-the-art in shoulder exoskeletons
5.3 Kinematics of spherical shoulder exoskeleton
5.3.1 Planar kinematics of the DPL
5.3.2 Kinematics of the shoulder mechanism
5.4 Shoulder mechanism design
5.5 Control strategies of exoskeleton shoulders
5.5.1 State-of-the-art exoskeleton control
5.5.2 Control algorithms
5.5.3 Trajectory-based control
5.5.4 Interaction-based control
5.6 Control of the shoulder mechanism
5.6.1 System description
5.7 Shoulder joint usability test
5.8 Conclusions
References
6 Calibration platform for wearable 3D motion sensors
Abstract
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Design of instrumented gimbal
6.2.1 The mechanical structure of the instrumented gimbal
6.2.2 The controller of the designed gimbal
6.2.3 The method for eliminating the magnetic disturbances
6.2.4 Calibration of the gimbal
6.3 Orientation evaluation with instrumented gimbal
6.3.1 Orientation error analysis using the instrumented gimbal
6.3.2 Selected wearable motion sensor
6.3.3 Sensor configuration
6.3.4 Hard-iron calibration for magnetometer
6.3.5 Coordinate frame alignment (CFA) for WMS before experiments
6.4 Experimental method
6.4.1 Static accuracy test
6.4.2 Dynamic accuracy test
6.4.2.1 Single-axis rotation
6.4.2.2 Multiaxis rotation
6.4.2.3 The effect of magnetic disturbances
6.5 Results and discussion
6.5.1 Static accuracy
6.5.2 Dynamic accuracy
6.5.2.1 Single-axis rotation
6.5.2.2 Multiaxis rotation
6.5.3 The effect of magnetic disturbances
6.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
7 Control and performance of upper- and lower extremity SEA-based exoskeletons
Abstract
7.1 Compliant actuators with series elasticity for wearable robots
7.2 NEUROExos elbow module
7.2.1 SEA architecture: mechanics and control
7.2.2 High-level control
7.3 NEUROExos shoulder–elbow module
7.3.1 SEA architecture: mechanics and control
7.3.2 High-level control
7.4 Active pelvis orthosis
7.4.1 SEA architecture: mechanics and control
7.4.2 High-level control
7.5 Performance, strengths, and challenges of SEAs in wearable robotics
References
8 Gait-event-based synchronization and control of a compact portable knee–ankle–foot exoskeleton robot for gait rehabilitation
Abstract
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Mechanical design of the knee–ankle–foot robot
8.2.1 Design specifications
8.2.2 Mechanical structure design of the robot
8.2.3 Compliant actuator design
8.3 Human–robot synchronization control
8.3.1 Gait pattern of human walking
8.3.2 Gait events detection using HMM
8.3.3 Adaptive oscillator
8.3.4 Assistive control of the robot
8.4 Experimental protocol
8.4.1 Experimental setup
8.4.2 Experimental protocol
8.4.3 Data analysis
8.5 Experimental results
8.5.1 Evaluation of synchronization
8.5.1.1 FW test
8.5.1.2 ZA test
8.5.1.3 SAW test
8.5.2 Efficiency of the adaptive oscillator
8.5.3 Evidence of assistance
8.6 Conclusion
References
Section 3 Devices
9 Real-time gait planning for a lower limb exoskeleton robot
Abstract
9.1 Introduction
9.2 SIAT lower limb exoskeleton robot
9.2.1 System and structure
9.2.2 Kinematics modeling
9.3 Crutches-walking gait analysis
9.4 Real-time gait planning
9.4.1 Gait planning strategy
9.4.2 Joint servo system
9.4.3 Control software
9.5 Experiments and discussion
9.6 Conclusions
References
10 Soft wearable assistive robotics: exosuits and supernumerary limbs
Abstract
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Exosuits
10.2.1 Design and actuation
10.2.2 Control
10.2.2.1 High-level controller
10.2.2.2 Mid-level controller: adaptive backlash compensation
10.2.2.3 Low-level controller: friction compensation and position control
10.2.3 Evaluation
10.2.4 Discussion
10.3 Supernumerary limbs
10.3.1 Design and actuation
10.3.2 Control
10.3.3 The hRing
10.3.4 The frontalis muscle cap
10.3.5 Evaluation
10.3.6 Performance evaluation
10.3.7 Tests with chronic stroke patients
10.3.8 Discussion
Acknowledgments
References
11 Walking assistive apparatus for gait training patients and promotion exercise of the elderly
Abstract
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Whole leg assisting type of walking assistive apparatus
11.3 Whole body motion support type mobile suit
11.4 Close-fitting type of walking assistive apparatus
11.5 Walking support robot ‘‘RE-Gait®’’ and ‘‘RE-Gait® Light’’
11.6 Control method of two-dimensional emotion map and future work
11.7 Conclusions
References
Section 4 Commercialization issues
12 Regulatory issues for exoskeletons
Abstract
12.1 Introduction
12.1.1 Exoskeletons: medical–non-medical applications
12.1.2 Machinery exoskeletons
12.1.3 Medical exoskeletons
12.2 Legislation applicable for wearable exoskeletons (medical/non-medical)
12.2.1 In Europe
12.2.1.1 What are directives?
12.2.2 In other parts of the world
12.3 The European directives: application on exoskeletons (non-medical)
12.3.1 The Machinery Directive (2006/42/E)
12.3.1.1 Scope of the Machinery Directive
12.3.1.2 Application of the directive machines on exoskeletons
12.3.1.3 Excluded or not?
12.3.1.4 What if the exoskeleton is considered as a medical device?
12.3.1.5 Division in risk-categories – Annex IV
12.3.1.6 Conformity procedures
12.3.2 The Low Voltage Directive (2014/35/EU)
12.3.2.1 Scope of Low Voltage Directive
12.3.2.2 Conformity procedures
12.3.3 The EMC Directive (2014/30/EU)
12.3.3.1 Scope of EMC Directive
12.3.3.2 Conformity procedures
12.4 Regulation for medical exoskeletons
12.4.1 Standards for medical devices
12.4.1.1 Product standards
12.4.1.2 Process standards
12.4.1.3 Installation and environmental standards
12.4.1.4 In-process standards
12.4.1.5 Safety standards
12.4.2 IEC 60601 standards series
12.4.2.1 Electromagnetic disturbances
12.4.3 Quality management system standards
12.4.4 Programmable electrical medical systems
12.4.5 Biocompatibility
12.4.6 Usability engineering
12.4.7 Recurrent test and test after repair
12.4.8 Home healthcare environment
12.5 New and future standards for medical electrical devices
12.6 Safety aspects for medical electrical devices
12.6.1 Safety aspects of wearable medical electrical devices
12.7 Conclusions
References
13 Test methods for exoskeletons—lessons learned from industrial and response robotics
Abstract
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Exoskeleton performance metrics
13.3 Standards
13.3.1 Safety standards
13.3.2 Crossindustry performance standards
13.3.2.1 Industrial robots
13.3.2.2 Response robots
13.4 Crossindustry measurements applicable to exoskeletons
13.4.1 Joint rotation axis location
13.4.1.1 Background
13.4.1.2 Literature survey of human body measurement
13.4.1.3 Robot joint measurement
13.4.1.4 Results
13.4.2 Industrial mobile manipulator
13.4.3 Response robots
13.5 Recommended test methods for exoskeletons
13.5.1 Load handling
13.5.1.1 Load carry, position, and orient
13.5.1.2 Peg-in-hole
13.5.1.3 Tool force
13.5.1.4 Navigation
13.5.1.5 Test dummy
13.6 Summary and conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
14 Ekso Bionics
14.1 Business overview
14.2 Rehabilitation robotics
14.2.1 Ekso GT
14.2.2 Market overview
14.2.3 Clinical evidence and reimbursement
14.2.4 Current sales and marketing efforts
14.2.5 After sales service
14.2.6 Manufacturing and supply chain
14.3 Home mobility
14.4 Able-bodied industrial applications
14.5 Ekso Labs
14.6 Intellectual property
14.7 Competition
14.8 Research and development
14.9 Governmental regulation and product approval
14.9.1 US regulation
14.9.2 Foreign regulation
14.10 Corporate information
Index
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