Wastewater to Water: Principles, Technologies and Engineering Design

507902_1_En_OFC
Preface
Acknowledgement
Contents
About the Author
Abbreviations
1 Introduction
1.1 Background
1.2 Water and Wastewater
1.3 Environmental Legislation Related to Water
1.4 Necessity and Essential Requirements of Wastewater Treatment System
1.5 Objectives of Sewage Collection, Treatment and Disposal
1.6 Wastewater Treatment
1.7 Emerging Concerns for Sewage Treatment
1.8 Commonly Used Terminologies and Definitions
References
2 Quantity Estimation of Sanitary Sewage and Storm Water
2.1 Sewage and Storm Water Collection
2.2 Types of Collection System
2.2.1 Background
2.2.2 Types of Sewerage System
2.2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Combined System
2.2.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Separate System
2.2.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Partially Separate System
2.3 Considerations for Selecting Type of Sewerage System
2.4 Design Period
2.5 Estimation of Per Capita Sewage Generation
2.5.1 Sources of Sanitary Sewage
2.5.2 Evaluation of Sewage Discharge
2.5.3 Estimating Net Quantity of Sewage
2.5.4 Sewage Quantity from Commercial Establishments and Institutions
2.6 Variation in Sewage Flow
2.7 Population Forecasting
2.7.1 Arithmetical Increase Method
2.7.2 Geometrical Increase Method or Geometrical Progression Method
2.7.3 Incremental Increase Method
2.7.4 Decreasing Rate of Growth Method
2.7.5 Graphical Method
2.7.6 Comparative Graphical Method
2.7.7 Master Plan Method
2.7.8 Logistic Curve Method
2.8 Estimation of Quantity of Sanitary Sewage
2.9 Estimation of Storm Water Runoff
2.9.1 Factors Affecting the Quantity of Stormwater
2.9.2 Measurement of Rainfall
2.9.3 Methods for Estimation of Quantity of Storm Water
2.9.4 Empirical Formulae for Rainfall Intensities
References
3 Sewer Materials, Shapes, Patterns of Collection System and Appurtenances
3.1 Shapes of Open Drain Section
3.2 Shapes of Closed Sewers
3.3 Materials Used for Construction of Sewers
3.3.1 Important Factors to be Considered for Selecting Material for Sewer
3.3.2 Materials for Sewers
3.4 Corrosion of Sewers
3.5 Patterns of Collection System
3.5.1 Perpendicular Pattern
3.5.2 Interceptor Pattern
3.5.3 Radial Pattern
3.5.4 Fan Pattern
3.5.5 Zone Pattern
3.6 Construction of Sewers
3.6.1 Laying of Sewer Pipes
3.6.2 Testing of Sewers
3.6.3 Backfilling of Trench
3.7 Sewer Appurtenances
3.7.1 Manholes
3.7.2 Inverted Siphons
3.7.3 Stormwater Inlets
3.7.4 Catch Basins
3.7.5 Clean-Outs
3.7.6 Flow Regulator or Overflow Device
3.7.7 Flap Gates and Flood Gates
3.7.8 Sewer Ventilators
3.7.9 Lamp Hole
References
4 Hydraulic Design of Sewerage System
4.1 Hydraulic Design of Sewers
4.1.1 General Consideration
4.1.2 Requirements of Design and Planning of Sewerage System
4.1.3 Difference Between Water Supply and Sewerage Networks
4.1.4 Provision of Freeboard in Sewers
4.2 Hydraulic Formulae for Estimating Flow Velocities
4.2.1 Chezy’s Formula
4.2.2 Manning’s Formula
4.2.3 Hazen-Williams Formula
4.2.4 Velocity of Flow in Sewers
4.3 Hydraulic Characteristics of Circular Sewer Flowing Partially Full
4.3.1 Designing Sewer to Be Same Self-Cleansing at Partial Depth as Full Depth
4.3.2 Solved Examples on Design of Sewers
4.4 Design of Storm Water Drains for Separate System
4.5 Sewage and Stormwater Pumping Stations
4.5.1 Introduction
4.5.2 Types of Pumps
4.5.3 Pumping System Design
4.5.4 Types of Pumping Stations
References
5 Classification and Quantification of Major Water Pollutants
5.1 Classification of Water Pollutants
5.1.1 Organic Pollutants
5.1.2 Pathogens
5.1.3 Nutrients
5.1.4 Suspended Solids and Sediments
5.1.5 Soluble Inorganic Pollutants
5.1.6 Thermal Pollution
5.1.7 Radioactive Pollutants
5.1.8 Nanoparticle Pollution
5.1.9 Emerging Contaminants
5.2 Quantification of Major Pollutants
5.2.1 Collection and Preservation of Samples
5.2.2 Measurement of pH
5.2.3 Measurement of Acidity and Alkalinity
5.2.4 Measurement of Solids Present in Wastewaters
5.2.5 Determination of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
5.2.6 Determination of Biochemical Oxygen Demand
5.2.7 Determination of Chemical Oxygen Demand
5.2.8 Determination of Total Organic Carbon
5.2.9 Determination of Nitrogen
5.2.10 Determination of Phosphorus
5.2.11 Determination of Most Probable Number for Identification of Coliforms
5.3 BOD Model and Relation with COD and TOC
5.3.1 Estimation of Organic Matter Content from Wastewater
5.3.2 Biochemical Oxygen Demand
5.3.3 Other Measures of Oxygen Demand
References
6 Fundamentals of Reactor Engineering and Overview of Sewage Treatment
6.1 Background
6.2 Wastewater Treatment Classification and Plant Analysis
6.2.1 Classification of Treatment Methods
6.2.2 Elements of Plant Analysis and Design
6.3 Order of Reaction
6.4 Types of Reactors Used in Wastewater Treatment
6.5 Flow Patterns of Reactors
6.5.1 Plug Flow Reactor
6.5.2 Non-ideal Plug Flow Reactor
6.5.3 Completely Mixed Reactor
6.6 Concept of Mass Balance
6.6.1 Analysis of Batch Reactor
6.6.2 Analysis of Completely Mixed Reactor
6.6.3 Analysis of Plug Flow Reactor
6.6.4 Analysis of CSTR Reactors in Series
6.6.5 Analysis of Dispersed Plug Flow Reactor
6.7 Overview of Sewage Treatment Plant
6.7.1 Characteristics of Municipal Wastewater
6.7.2 Sewage Treatment Flow Sheet
References
7 Self-purification of Natural Streams
7.1 Self-purification
7.2 Factors Affecting Self-purification
7.3 Streeter-Phelps Oxygen Sag Analysis
7.4 Mathematical Representation of Oxygen Sag Curve
References
8 Unit Operations and Chemical Unit Processes
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Screens
8.2.1 Classification of Screens
8.2.2 Specifications of Bar Screen
8.2.3 Quantities and Disposal of Screening Material
8.3 Theory of Sedimentation
8.3.1 Classification of Settling
8.4 Grit Chamber
8.4.1 Classification of Grit Chamber
8.4.2 Constant Velocity Horizontal Flow Rectangular Grit Chamber
8.4.3 Square Grit Chamber
8.4.4 Aerated Grit Chamber
8.4.5 Vortex Type Grit Chamber
8.4.6 Sludge De-gritting
8.4.7 Collection and Disposal of Grit
8.5 Skimming Tank
8.6 Primary Sedimentation Tank
8.6.1 Type of Sedimentation Tank
8.6.2 Factors Affecting Performance of Sedimentation Tank
8.6.3 Solids Removal Efficiency of Sedimentation Tanks
8.6.4 Design Recommendations for PST
8.7 Secondary Sedimentation Tank
8.8 Plate Settler and Tube Settler
8.8.1 Counter-Current Plate Settler
8.8.2 Co-current Plate Settler
8.8.3 Cross-Flow Plate Settler
8.8.4 Lamella Clarifier
8.9 Equalization
8.9.1 Location and Types of Equalization Basin
8.9.2 Volume Requirement for the Equalization Tank
8.9.3 Basin Geometry and Construction
8.9.4 Mixing Requirement
8.9.5 Design of Equalization Basin for Concentration Dampening
8.10 Neutralization
8.11 Dissolved Air Flotation
8.12 Coagulation
8.12.1 Properties of Colloidal Solid Particles
8.12.2 Surface Charge of Colloids
8.12.3 Electrical Double Layer
8.12.4 Zeta Potential and Psi Potential
8.12.5 Particle Stability
8.12.6 Theory of Coagulation
8.12.7 Types of Coagulant
8.12.8 Governing Parameters for Coagulation
8.13 Flocculation
8.13.1 Mechanism of Flocculation
8.13.2 Factors Affecting Flocculation
8.13.3 Design Considerations
8.14 High-Rate Flocculation
8.14.1 Ballasted Flocculation
8.14.2 High Density Sludge Process
References
9 Fundamentals of Biological Wastewater Treatment
9.1 Background
9.2 Bacterial Metabolism and Use in Wastewater Treatment
9.2.1 Bacterial Metabolism in Wastewater Treatment
9.2.2 Catabolism and Anabolism
9.2.3 Nutritional Requirements for Microbial Growth
9.2.4 Types of Microbial Metabolism
9.2.5 Bacterial Growth Kinetics
9.2.6 Bacterial Growth Kinetics in Batch Culture
9.2.7 Bacterial Growth Kinetics in Continuous Feed Culture
9.2.8 Principles of Biological Wastewater Treatment
9.3 Factors Affecting the Bacterial Growth
9.4 Role of Enzymes in Biological Wastewater Treatment
9.4.1 Mechanism of Enzymatic Reactions
9.4.2 Selection of Enzymes for Treatment of Wastewater
9.4.3 Role of Microbial Enzymes for Wastewater Treatment
9.4.4 Technologies Using Enzyme for Enhancing Wastewater Treatment Efficiency
9.5 Wastewater Treatment Using Bacteria
9.5.1 Aerobic Treatment of Wastewater
9.5.2 Anaerobic Treatment of Wastewater
9.5.3 Anoxic Treatment 
9.6 Role of Algae in Wastewater Remediation
9.6.1 Potential of Algae for Wastewater Treatment
9.6.2 Types of Algae Used in Wastewater Treatment
9.6.3 Favourable Growth Condition for Culturing of Algae
9.6.4 Algal Cultivation Techniques Employed in Wastewater Treatment
9.6.5 Algal Cell Growth Kinetics
9.7 Application of Algae in Wastewater Treatment
9.7.1 Removal of Nitrogen and Phosphorus
9.7.2 Removal of Chemical and Biochemical Oxygen Demand
9.7.3 Reduction of Coliforms and Other Pathogens
9.7.4 Biosorption of Heavy Metals
9.7.5 Removal of Pesticides and Other Xenobiotic Compounds
9.8 Wastewater Treatment Using Other Microorganisms
References
10 Aerobic Wastewater Treatment Systems
10.1 Activated Sludge Process
10.1.1 Overview
10.1.2 Process Description
10.1.3 Type of Aeration Provided in ASP
10.1.4 Types of Activated Sludge Process
10.1.5 Bacterial Growth Kinetics in ASP
10.1.6 Process Analysis of Completely Mixed Reactor with Sludge Recycling
10.1.7 Aeration and Mixing Systems
10.1.8 Secondary Sedimentation Tank for ASP
10.2 Analysis of Gas Transfer
10.2.1 Evaluation of O2 Transfer Coefficient
10.2.2 Factors Affecting Oxygen Transfer
10.2.3 Application of Correction Factors
10.3 Sequencing Batch Reactor
10.4 Aerated Lagoon
10.4.1 Design of Aerobic Flow-Through Type Lagoons
10.4.2 Oxygen Requirements
10.4.3 Other Details
10.5 Trickling Filter
10.5.1 Overview
10.5.2 History
10.5.3 Physical Description
10.5.4 Types of Trickling Filters
10.5.5 Process Description
10.5.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of a Trickling Filter
10.5.7 Design Equations for Trickling Filter
10.5.8 Recent Developments in Trickling Filter Research
10.6 Biological Active Filter
10.7 Fluidised Bed Bioreactor
10.7.1 Different Types of FBBRs
10.7.2 Minimum Fluidizing Velocity
References
11 Hybrid Aerobic Wastewater Treatment Systems
11.1 Submerged Aerobic Filter
11.1.1 Description of Submerged Aerobic Filter
11.1.2 Design Recommendation for SAF
11.1.3 Performance of SAF
11.2 Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor
11.2.1 General Description of Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor
11.2.2 Design Recommendations for MBBR
11.2.3 Performance of MBBR
11.3 Rotating Biological Contactor
11.3.1 Process Description
11.3.2 Factors Affecting Performance of RBC
11.3.3 Process Design
11.3.4 Process Operation
11.4 Hanging Sponge Reactor
11.4.1 Process Description
11.4.2 Performance of DHS Reactor
11.5 Membrane Bio-reactor
11.5.1 Process Description
11.5.2 Process Design
11.5.3 Control of Membrane Fouling
11.5.4 Performance of MBR
References
12 Anaerobic Process for Wastewater Treatment
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Advantages and Limitations of Anaerobic Process
12.3 Principles of Anaerobic Digestion
12.3.1 Hydrolysis
12.3.2 Acidogenesis
12.3.3 Acetogenesis
12.3.4 Methanogenesis
12.3.5 Microorganisms Involved in Methanogenesis
12.3.6 Estimation of Methane Production
12.4 Anaerobic Reactor Types
12.4.1 Anaerobic Sludge Digesters
12.4.2 Septic Tanks
12.4.3 Anaerobic Pond or Anaerobic Lagoons
12.4.4 Anaerobic Filters
12.4.5 Up-Flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor
12.4.6 Anaerobic Fluidised Bed Bioreactor
12.4.7 Anaerobic Baffled Reactor
12.4.8 Anaerobic Sequencing Batch Reactor
12.5 Factors Affecting Anaerobic Digestion
12.5.1 Temperature
12.5.2 Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH)
12.5.3 Physical Parameters
12.5.4 Nutrients (Nitrogen and Phosphorus)
12.5.5 Trace Metals
12.5.6 Inhibitory Substances
12.6 Design of Anaerobic Reactors
12.7 Design of UASB Reactor
12.7.1 Design of Gas–Liquid-Solid Separator for UASB Reactor
12.7.2 Effluent Collection System
12.7.3 Design of Feed Inlet System
12.7.4 Other Requirements
12.8 Operation of Anaerobic Reactors
12.8.1 Start-Up of Anaerobic Reactors
12.8.2 Procedure Preceding the Start-Up of a Reactor
12.8.3 Procedure During the Start-Up of an Anaerobic Reactor
12.9 Monitoring of the Treatment Process
12.10 Troubleshooting of the Process
References
13 Ponds and Wetlands for Treatment of Wastewater
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Pond Systems
13.2.1 Oxidation Pond
13.2.2 Facultative Stabilization Ponds
13.2.3 Anaerobic Lagoons
13.2.4 Other Types of Ponds
13.3 Other Features of Ponds
13.3.1 Modes of Operation of Ponds
13.3.2 Components of a Pond System
13.3.3 Operation and Maintenance of Waste Stabilization Pond
13.3.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Pond Systems
13.4 Factors Affecting Performance of Ponds
13.4.1 Seasonal Changes and Environmental Factors
13.4.2 Effect of Photosynthesis Activity
13.4.3 Other Factors to Be Considered for Designing Ponds
13.5 Terminologies Used for Defining Performance of Pond Systems
13.5.1 Hydraulic Loading Rate
13.5.2 Organic Loading Rate
13.5.3 Nitrogen and Phosphorous Removal
13.6 Design Guidelines for Oxidation Ponds
13.7 Design of Facultative Stabilization Pond
13.8 Constructed Wetland Systems
13.8.1 Classification of Constructed Wetlands
13.8.2 Plants Used in Constructed Wetlands
13.8.3 Salient Features of Wetland Systems
13.8.4 Design of Constructed Wetland
References
14 Biological Processes for Nutrient Removal
14.1 Nitrification
14.2 Factors Affecting Nitrification
14.3 Denitrification
14.4 Factors Affecting Denitrification
14.5 Systems Used for Nitrification and Denitrification
14.5.1 Simultaneous Nitrification and Denitrification
14.5.2 Pre-anoxic Single-Sludge System
14.5.3 Post-anoxic Single and Two Sludge System
14.5.4 Closed Loop Systems
14.6 Design Guidelines for Biological Nitrification and Denitrification
14.7 Anammox Process
14.8 Biological Phosphorus Removal
14.8.1 Process Description
14.8.2 Factors Affecting Enhanced Biological Phosphorus Removal Process
References
15 Sludge Management
15.1 Importance of Sludge Treatment and Disposal
15.2 Sources and Characteristics of Sludge
15.2.1 Primary or Raw Sludge
15.2.2 Secondary Sludges
15.2.3 Digested Sludge
15.2.4 Tertiary Sludges
15.3 Quantity and Mass-Volume Relationship of Sludge
15.3.1 Quantity Estimation
15.3.2 Mass-Volume Relationship
15.4 Sludge Treatment
15.5 Preliminary Operations Used in Sludge Handling
15.6 Sludge Thickening
15.6.1 Co-settling Thickening in Primary Settling Tank
15.6.2 Gravity Thickening
15.6.3 Floatation Thickening
15.7 Sludge Stabilization
15.7.1 Lime Stabilization
15.7.2 Heat Stabilization
15.7.3 Anaerobic Digestion
15.7.4 Types of Anaerobic Digesters
15.7.5 Start-up and Operation of Digesters
15.7.6 Design Considerations
15.7.7 Aerobic Digestion
15.7.8 Composting
15.8 Sludge Conditioning
15.8.1 Chemical Conditioning
15.8.2 Thermal Conditioning
15.8.3 Freeze–Thaw Conditioning
15.9 Sludge Dewatering
15.9.1 Mechanical Dewatering
15.9.2 Air Drying Processes
15.9.3 Thermal Drying
15.10 Thermal Volume Reduction
15.10.1 Incineration
15.10.2 Multiple Hearth Incineration
15.10.3 Fluidized Bed Incinerator
15.10.4 Electrical Furnace
15.11 Pyrolysis
15.11.1 Production Oil and Biochar from Sludge (OFS Process)
15.11.2 Gasification
15.12 Other Alternatives for Sludge Treatment
15.12.1 Wet Air Oxidation
15.12.2 Sludge Melting
15.12.3 Sludge Lagoons
15.12.4 Ultrasound Waves for Sludge Dewatering
15.12.5 Value Added Product Recovery
15.13 Sludge Disposal
15.13.1 Ocean Dumping
15.13.2 Incineration
15.13.3 Land Spreading
15.13.4 Land Revegetation
15.13.5 Land Reclamation of Abandoned Mining Sites
15.13.6 Land Spreading in Forestry
15.13.7 Landfilling
References
16 Tertiary Wastewater Treatment Systems
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Pressure Filters
16.3 Adsorption
16.3.1 Types of Adsorptions
16.3.2 Progression of Adsorption
16.3.3 Adsorption Isotherms
16.3.4 Factors Affecting Adsorption
16.3.5 Materials Used as Adsorbent
16.3.6 Modes of Operation
16.4 Ion Exchange
16.4.1 Applications of Ion Exchange Process
16.4.2 Limitations of Ion Exchange Process
16.5 Electrodialysis
16.6 Solar Still
16.7 Membrane Filtration
16.7.1 Classification of Membranes as Per Pore Size
16.7.2 Membrane Materials
16.7.3 Membrane Configurations
16.7.4 Classification Based on Filtration Modes
16.7.5 Concentration Polarization
16.7.6 Resistance in Series Model
16.7.7 Compaction of Cake Layer
16.7.8 Back Transport
16.7.9 Operational Modes and Their Effects on Membrane Fouling
References
17 Advanced Oxidation Processes
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Classification of Advanced Oxidation Processes
17.3 Fenton-Based AOPs
17.3.1 Major Benefits and Drawbacks of Fenton-Based AOPs
17.3.2 Photo-Fenton Process
17.3.3 Heterogeneous Fenton Process
17.3.4 Sono-Fenton Process
17.3.5 Applications of Fenton-Based AOPs
17.3.6 Scaling-Up of Different Fenton-Based AOPs
17.4 UV-Based AOPs
17.4.1 UV/H2O2
17.4.2 UV/Cl2
17.4.3 UV/O3
17.4.4 UV/SO4˙−
17.4.5 Design of UV-Based AOPs Reactor
17.4.6 Applications of Various UV-Based AOPs
17.4.7 Scaling-Up of UV-Based AOPs
17.5 Ozone-Based AOPs
17.5.1 Major Benefits and Drawbacks of Ozonation
17.5.2 O3/H2O2
17.5.3 Catalytic Ozonation
17.5.4 Applications of Catalytic Ozonation Process
17.5.5 Scaling-Up of Various Ozone-Based AOPs
17.6 Emerging AOP Technologies
17.6.1 Gamma Radiation-Based AOP
17.6.2 Cavitation-Based AOP
17.6.3 Electrochemical Oxidation-Based AOPs
17.7 Factors Affecting Efficiency of Advanced Oxidation Processes
17.7.1 Effect of Carbonate and Bicarbonate Ions
17.7.2 Effect of Phosphate Ions
17.7.3 Effect of Target Pollutant Concentration on Efficiency of AOPs
17.7.4 Effect of pH
17.7.5 Effect of Oxidant Concentration
17.7.6 Effect of Light Intensity
References
18 Disinfection of Wastewater
18.1 Introduction
18.1.1 Need for Disinfection
18.1.2 Present Disinfection Practices
18.1.3 Selection of Disinfectant and Influencing Parameters
18.2 Chlorination
18.2.1 Strategies for Chlorination
18.2.2 Determination of Chlorine Dose Using Chlorination Model
18.2.3 Formation of Chloramines and Its Effect
18.2.4 Drawbacks of Chlorination
18.2.5 Dechlorination
18.3 Ozonation
18.3.1 Application Areas
18.3.2 Energy Requirement and Energy Per Order
18.3.3 Drawbacks of Ozonation
18.4 Ultraviolet Radiation
18.4.1 Application Areas
18.4.2 Drawbacks of UV
18.5 Hydrogen Peroxide
18.5.1 Application of Hydrogen Peroxide
18.5.2 Drawbacks of Hydrogen Peroxide Process
18.6 Summary
References
19 Onsite Sanitation Systems
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Classification of Onsite Sanitation Solutions
19.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Onsite Sanitation
19.4 Pit Toilets
19.5 Septic Tank
19.5.1 Single-Chambered Septic Tank
19.5.2 Two-Chambered Septic Tank
19.5.3 Two-Chambered Septic Tank with Filter
19.5.4 Anaerobic Baffled Reactor with Filter
19.5.5 Design of Septic Tank
19.6 Soak Pits
19.7 Biodigestors
19.8 Bio-toilet (Aerobic)
19.9 Other Innovative Technologies
19.9.1 Incineration Toilet
19.9.2 Chemical Toilet
19.9.3 Composting Toilet
19.9.4 Bioelectric Toilet
19.9.5 Vacuum Toilets
19.10 Summary
References
20 Emerging Technologies for Treatment of Wastewaters
20.1 Bio-electrochemical Processes
20.1.1 Introduction
20.1.2 Types of Bio-electrochemical Processes and Performance Evaluation
20.2 Electrocoagulation
20.2.1 Introduction
20.2.2 Colloidal Stability and Destabilization
20.2.3 Mechanism of Colloidal Destabilization
20.2.4 Coagulation and Flocculation
20.2.5 Electrocoagulation
20.2.6 Operating Factors Affecting the Efficiency Electrocoagulation
20.2.7 Application of Electrocoagulation in Wastewater Treatment
20.2.8 Cost Analysis of Electrocoagulation
20.3 Electro-oxidation
20.3.1 Factors Influencing Electro-oxidation of Inorganic and Organic Pollutants
20.3.2 Applications of Electro-oxidation
20.4 Nano-technology
20.4.1 Introduction
20.4.2 Applications of Nanotechnology in Wastewater Treatment
20.4.3 Ecotoxicological Effects of Nanotechnology
20.4.4 Recovery of Nanoparticles from Treated Effluent
20.5 Plasma Technology
20.5.1 Introduction
20.5.2 Classification of Plasma Technology
20.5.3 Type of Discharges
20.5.4 Factors Affecting Performance of Plasma Technology
20.5.5 Application of Plasma Technology in Wastewater Treatment
References
21 Life Cycle Costing of Wastewater Treatment
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Life Cycle Costing Sample Calculation
21.2.1 Consideration of Inflation and Discount Rates
21.2.2 Determination of Present Value
21.3 Cost Comparison of STP Using Different Secondary Treatment Technologies
21.3.1 Description of Sewage Treatment Plant
21.3.2 Service Life of Different Components
21.3.3 Annual Maintenance, Repair and Consumable Cost Assumptions
21.3.4 Assessment of Future One-Time Costs
21.3.5 Manpower and Electricity Cost Calculations
21.3.6 Estimation of Total Present Worth of 1 MLD Capacity STP
21.4 Case Studies Considering Different Secondary Treatment Technologies for STP
21.4.1 Estimation of Life Cycle Costing for MBR as Secondary Treatment
21.4.2 Estimation of Life Cycle Costing for EA-ASP as Secondary Treatment
21.4.3 Estimation of Life Cycle Costing for SBR as Secondary Treatment
21.5 Summary
References
Appendix C: Physical Properties of Water
Appendix B: Dissolved Oxygen Saturation Concentration Values in Fresh and Saline Water Exposed to Atmosphere Under a Pressure of 760 mm Hg Containing 20.9% Oxygen
Appendix A: Periodic Table of the Elements
Appendix 1.1 Effluent Discharge Standards
References