Viral, Parasitic, Bacterial, and Fungal Infections: Antimicrobial, Host Defense, and Therapeutic Strategies

Front Cover
Viral, Parasitic, Bacterial, and Fungal Infections: Antimicrobial, Host Defense, and Therapeutic Strategies
Copyright
Dedication
Contents
Contributors
Preface
Part I: Introduction
Chapter 1: Clinical applications of molecular diagnosis in infectious diseases
Introduction
Bacteria
Clinical applicability
Resistance testing
Viruses
Clinical applicability
Resistance testing
Monitoring response to treatment
Fungi
Clinical applicability
Resistance testing
Mycobacteria
Clinical applicability
Resistance testing
Response to treatment
Parasites
Clinical applicability
Resistance testing
Monitoring response to treatment
Molecular diagnostics in special circumstances
Infection control
Antimicrobial stewardship
Global health
Conclusion
References
Chapter 2: Airway mucus, infection, and therapeutic strategies
Introduction
The mucous layer
Mucins
Mucin modifications
Cystic fibrosis
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Asthma
COVID-19
Respiratory pathogens and mucus
Bacterial strategies
Viral strategies
Fungal strategies
Therapies
Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: From plants to animals: A study of phytopathogenic infections
Introduction
Nature and significance of identifying phytopathogens
Phytonoses: Phytopathogenic infections jump to humans
Bacterial infections from plants
Viral infections from plants
Fungal infections from plants
Cross infections (human uveitis mycoplasma-like organisms) (MLO)
Indoor plants cause allergies
Prevention, treatment, and cure of phytopathogens and phytonoses
Prevention
Temperature, relative humidity, and soil
Good agricultural practices (GAP)
Treatment
Agro-technical measures
Chemical control
Biological control
Genetic engineering techniques
Cure
Conclusion
References
Chapter 4: Epigenetic basis of infectious diseases
Introduction
Epigenetic regulations
Infection and host tissue epigenetics
Epigenetic changes directed by virus-induced infections
Epigentics basis of coronavirus infection
Epigenetic changes directed by bacterial infections
Epigenetic changes directed by (protozoa) parasites-induced infections
Epigenetic basis of sepsis
Therapeutic strategies targeting epigenetics for infection
Conclusion
References
Chapter 5: Burden of infectious diseases and strategies of prevention
Introduction
Burden and challenges
Influenza
Tuberculosis
TB and COVID
Human immunodeficiency virus
HIV and COVID-19
Public health strategies to prevent spread of infectious diseases
Immunization
National public health countermeasures
Surveillance
Screening and containment
Other social measures
United States of America specific efforts
Global health security strategy
Strategic national stockpile
International countermeasures
Lessons learned from epidemic and pandemics
Moving forward
References
Chapter 6: Primary factors that determine the severity of various infections and effective nutraceutical intervention str ...
Introduction
Prominent infectious disorders
COVID 19: An overview
Mechanism and consequences of COVID-19 viral infection
Critical features of COVID-19 infections and therapeutic strategy
The herpes virus
Herpes viral activation: An opportunistic biological resident
Candida albicans (Yeast Infections)
Healthy diet, gut microbiome, and immune competence
Roles of nutraceuticals and functional foods in enhancing immune competence
Concluding remarks
References
Chapter 7: Infection and obesity: Two sides of the same coin
Introduction
Influence of obesity on infections
Obesity, impaired immune dysfunction, and infections
Obesity and innate immunity dysfunction
Obesity and adaptive immunity dysfunction
Obesity and viral infections
Influence of infections on obesity
Infectious microbes and obesity
Canine distemper virus
Borna disease virus
Scrapie agents
Rous-associated virus type 7
Gut microbiota
Herpesviridae
Chlamydia trachomatis
SMAM-1
Adenovirus-36
Conclusions
References
Chapter 8: Infections in liver transplantation
Introduction
Risk factors for infection after liver transplant
Exposures
Recipient-derived exposures
Donor-derived infections
Surgery
Hospital and community acquired
Net state of immunosuppression
Infection timeline
Early phase: 1st month after transplant
Intermediate phase: 1-6months after transplant
Late phase: Greater than 6 months after transplant
Pathogen specific infections
Bacterial infection
Surgical site infection
Intra-abdominal infection
Bloodstream infection
Pneumonia
Drug resistant organisms
Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
Vancomycin resistant Enterococci (VRE)
Extended spectrum beta-lactamase-producing (ESBL) Enterobacteriaceae
Viral infection
Cytomegalovirus (CMV)
Epstein Barr virus (EBV)
Herpes simplex virus (HSV)
Hepatitis C virus (HCV)
Fungal infections
Candida
Pneumocystis jirovecii (formerly Pneumocystis carinii)
Parasites
Strongyloides stercoralis
Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: An overview of antimicrobial peptides
Introduction
Source, structure, properties, and functions of AMPs
Classification of AMPs
Classification of AMPs based on activity
Antibacterial peptides
Antiviral peptides
Antifungal peptides
Anticancer peptides
Classification of AMPs based on amino acid-rich species
Proline-rich peptides (PrAMPs)
Tryptophan- and arginine-rich antimicrobial peptides
Histidine-rich peptides
Glycine-rich antimicrobial peptides
Classification based on antimicrobial peptide structures
Mechanism of action of AMPs
Applications of antimicrobial peptides
Conclusion
References
Chapter 10: Antimicrobial peptides: A possible strategy to combat ESKAPE pathogens
Introduction
Epigenetic regulation of hosts by persistent pathogens
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs)
Properties of AMPs for systemic clearance of MDR pathogens
Conclusion and future perspectives
References
Part II: Viral infections and therapeutics
Chapter 11: A treatise on Ebola virus
Introduction
Microbiology and virology of Ebola virus
Epidemiology
Mode of transmission
Ebola virus disease case definition
Clinical features of Ebola virus infection
First initial stage
Second stage
Third stage
Laboratory investigations
There are some nonspecific laboratory findings
Ebola-specific tests
Prevention and treatment
Symptomatic and supportive treatment
Based on WHO standards, a simple guidance for symptomatic treatment of EVD [59]
Specific treatment
Available Ebola vaccine
Ebola survivors
Conclusion
References
Chapter 12: Herpes virus and its manifestations
Introduction
Types
Viral structure, infection, and replication
HHV-1 and HHV-2
Pathophysiology
Treatment and prevention
HHV-3
Pathophysiology
Treatment and prevention
HHV-4
Pathophysiology
Treatment and prevention
HHV-5
Pathophysiology
Treatment and prevention
HHV-6
Pathophysiology
Treatment and prevention
HHV-7
Pathophysiology
Treatment and prevention
HHV-8
Pathophysiology
Treatment and prevention
Summary
References
Chapter 13: Swine flu - An overview
Introduction
Pathophysiology
Histopathology of lung
Structure
Life cycle of H1N1 virus
Immunity to influenza virus
Diagnostic tool
Treatment of influenza virus
Flu vaccination
Conclusion
References
Chapter 14: Avian influenza virus: Prevalence infection and therapy
Introduction
Genomic structure of virus
Types and subtypes of avian influenza virus
Transmission to the host
Pathogenesis
Pathogenesis in birds
Pathogenesis in human
Economic importance
Therapeutic strategies
Conclusion
References
Chapter 15: Mosquito defense mechanisms against medically important arboviruses: The vector-pathogen interface
Emerging and reemerging arboviral diseases
Antiviral strategies in mosquitoes
Antiviral immunity
RNA interference (RNAi) pathways
Toll, IMD, and JAK-STAT pathways
Toll and IMD pathways
JAK-STAT pathway
Symbiotic microorganisms
Virus defenses mediated by nutrition
Antiviral mechanism in hemolymph
Mechanisms to prevent viral propagation in salivary gland
The antiviral response of mosquitoes mediated by fat bodies
Arbovirus infection restrictions by neurons
Autophagy
Concluding remark
References
Chapter 16: Influenza update
Introduction
Pathophysiology
Virology
Epidemiology and public health
Clinical presentation
Complications
Differential diagnosis
Laboratory diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Current and future research
Conclusion
References
Chapter 17: Measles: The road to eradication
Introduction
Epidemiology
Virology and immunology
Clinical manifestations
Diagnosis
Treatment
Complications
Prevention
Current research and future eradication
Conclusion
References
Chapter 18: A paradigm of ZIKA virus infection
Introduction
Epidemiology of ZIKV
Virology of the ZIKV
Life cycle of ZIKV
Transmission of ZIKV
Mosquito borne transmission
Nonmosquito transmission
Pathogenesis of ZIKV
Mechanism of ZIKV
Replicative cycle
Animal studies
Symptoms
Complications of ZIKV disease
Diagnosis of ZIKV
Virus isolation
Antigen detection
Molecular assay
Serological assays
ZIKV diagnosis in endemic countries
Diagnosis of travelers
Treatment
Developments in ZIKV treatment
Prevention and management
References
Further reading
Chapter 19: Viral infection and its management
Introduction
Entry into the host cell
Replication of viral genetic material
Regulation of host-cell metabolism
Assembly of progeny virions
Viral egress
Breaching the first barrier: Viral entry into host cells
Stopping viruses at the door: Viral entry as therapeutic target
Establishing infection: Replication of viral genetic material
Replication of DNA viruses
Replication of RNA viruses
Viral replication compartments
Stopping the juggernaut: Viral replication as therapeutic target
Viral master manipulators: Regulation of host cell metabolism
Early/late-phase gene expression in DNA viruses
Regulation of cellular translational control
Evading the host innate immune system
RNA sensors and the innate immune system
Proxy wars: Targeting viral modulation of host cell metabolism therapeutically
Moving out to conquer: Viral egress
Closing the door: Targeting viral egress therapeutically
Conclusion
Glossary of terms
References
Chapter 20: Momordica charantia(bitter melon): Potent antiviral efficacy and significant benefits against herpes virus
Introduction
Bitter melon/Momordica charantia profile
Origin and distribution
Botanical description
Cultivation and nutritional composition
Bioactive components of M. charantia
Significant benefit of bitter melon in viral infections
Phytochemicals possessing antiviral activity
Ribosomal inactivating proteins (RIPs) of bitter melon
Momordin
MAP30
Momorcharin
Alpha and beta-momorcharin (α and β MMC)
M. charantia lectin (MCL)
Saponins
Bitter melon with specific antiviral activities
Anti-HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) activity
Anti-hepatitis B virus (HBV) activity
Anti-influenza activity
Potent anti-HSV (herpes simplex virus) activity
Herpes simplex virus
MAP 30 exhibits anti-HSV activity by specifically inhibiting replication and assembly of viral progeny
Other therapeutic activities of bitter melon
Antimicrobial activity and antihelminthic activity
Conclusion
References
Part III: COVID-19, mucormycosis, omicron, and strategic therapeutics
Chapter 21: An overview of COVID-19: An emerging infectious disease
Introduction
Pathogen of pandemic potential
Causative organism
Origin of the virus
Natural selection in an animal host before zoonotic transfer
Natural selection in humans following zoonotic transfer
Selection during the passage
Global scenario-COVID-19
Mode of transmission
Contact and droplet transmission
Airborne transmission
Fomite transmission
Transmission rate
Transmission-From humans to animals
Transmission of disease among the animals
Risk factors for severe COVID-19 [27,28]
Clinical features
Complications
Clinical manifestations in pets
Surveillance strategies [33]
Suspected case definition
Probable case definition
Confirmed case of COVID-19
Surveillance in community
Surveillance at the primary care level
Hospital-based surveillance
Sentinel site surveillance
Closed settings
Healthcare-associated surveillance
Mortality surveillance
Laboratory testing data surveillance
Event-based surveillance (EBS)
Telephone hotlines
Environmental surveillance
Serological surveillance
Surveillance among animals
Laboratory diagnosis of COVID-19
Research and development of medicine and vaccine for COVID-19
COVID-19 vaccines
Therapeutics for COVID-19
Ivermectin
Hydroxychloroquine
Lopinavir/ritonavir
Remdesivir
Systemic corticosteroids
Infection prevention and control of healthcare personnel
Infection prevention and control
Personal protective equipment
Preventive measures
Nonpharmaceutical interventions (NPIs)
Social distancing
Closures
Recommended steps for risk adjusted nonpharmaceutical interventions
Other strategies
Contact tracing
Digital technologies
Scale-up of testing
Legal steps
Ethical principles
Home quarantine
Definition of contact
Preparedness of health system against COVID-19
National legislation and financing
IHR coordination and communication
Zoonotic events and the human-animal interface
National laboratory system
Surveillance
Human resources
National health emergency framework
Health service provision
Case management and continuity of essential services
Infection prevention and control
Risk communication and community engagement
Points of entry
Medical counter measures-Logistics, procurement, and supply management
Conclusion
References
Chapter 22: Impacts of viral pathogenesis and vaccine immunization on the host humoral immune response in SARS-CoV-2 and ...
Introduction
Structural organization of the virus
Phases of SARS-CoV-2 life cycle
Activation of viral spike glycoprotein by host proteases
Binding of S protein with ACE2 receptor
Fusion of SARS-CoV-2 with host cell membrane
Replication of SARS-CoV-2 genome
Assembly and release of the progeny virus particles
Immune escape of SARS-CoV-2 and variants
Lymphopenia: Escaping T-cell immunity
Regulation of CD8+ T cell responses in COVID-19
Regulation of CD4+ T cell responses in COVID-19
Regulation of T follicular helper (Tfh) cells
B cell responses against SARS-CoV-2 variants
Current status of the vaccine performances against emerging SARS-CoV-2 VOCs
Vaccine-induced T-cell immunity against emerging SARS-CoV-2 VOCs
Vaccine-induced B-cell responses against emerging SARS-CoV-2 VOCs
Concluding remarks and future scope
References
Chapter 23: Gut microbiome and COVID-19
Introduction
Gut microbiome
Factors modulating gut microbiome
Probiotics
Prebiotics
SCFA and BCAA
Short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) and branched chain fatty acids (BCAA)
Dysbiosis and eubiosis
Enterotypes
SARS-CoV-2 and the variants
Omicron variant
COVID-19
Effect of COVID-19 on gut microbiome
Gut microbiome influencing severity of COVID
Gastrointestinal diseases, dysbiosis, and COVID-19
Gut microbiome, COVID-19 and cytokine storm
Gut microbiome, COVID-19, and interferon
Gut-lung axis and COVID-19
Obesity, dysbiosis, and COVID-19
Probiotics in the treatment of COVID-19
Long Covid
Conclusions
References
Chapter 24: Human gut virome and COVID-19: Modulating the extent of infection
Introduction
Gut-virome and its composition
Gut-virome and immune response
Influences of eukaryotic viruses on immune responses
Influences of bacteriophages on immune responses
Direct influences
Indirect influences
SARS-CoV-2 affects gut through gut-lung axis
SARS-CoV-2 and gut-virome
Therapeutic treatment and gut virome
Future prospects
References
Chapter 25: Unveiling the prevalence and impact of diabetes on COVID-19
Introduction to SARS-CoV2: Molecular basis of its pathogenicity
The Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway-antagonistic function of ACE and ACE-2 in the RAAS axis
ACE-2 and diabetic complications: Role in diabetic cardiovascular complications and heart diseases
Covid-19 and diabetes: Is the correlation a myth or a reality?
Immune dysbiosis in diabetes and COVID-19
Key cellular molecules implicated in reversing inflammatory damage
Understanding the molecular basis of COVID-19 and hyperglycemia cross-talk
COVID-19 therapy with and without hyperglycemia
Implications of climate change in COVID-19 pandemic
Concluding remarks
References
Chapter 26: The interrelation of obesity and COVID-19 in aging
Introduction
Aging, inflaging and COVID-19
Obesity and plausibility of COVID-19
Biological horizons
Conclusion
References
Chapter 27: Mucormycosis: Prognosis and management
Introduction
History
Types of mucormycosis
Pathogens causing mucormycosis
Pathogenesis
Epidemiology
Hematological malignancy
Solid organ malignancies and solid organ transplantation
Corticosteroids
Natural disaster
COVID-19 related
Clinical manifestations
Pulmonary mucormycosis
Rhinocerebral mucormycosis
Cutaneous mucormycosis
Gastrointestinal mucormycosis
Disseminated mucormycosis
Uncommon forms of mucormycosis
Diagnosis
Orbit or sinus radiography
Computed tomography (CT)
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Histopathological examination
Treatment approaches to mucormycosis
Reversal or prevention of underlying disease
Surgery
Antifungal treatment for mucormycosis
Lipid formulations of Amphotericin B
New triazoles
Posaconazole
Isavuconazole
Combination therapy
New antifungals against mucorales
Conclusion
References
Further reading
Chapter 28: Omicron: Mystery, history, and impact on existence
Introduction
Structural components
Structure of the SARS-CoV2 S protein
Symptoms
Features
Contagiousness
Virulence
Diagnosis
Prevention
Conclusion
References
Part IV: Parasitic infections and therapeutics
Chapter 29: Host immune responses against parasitic infection
Introduction
Epidemiology
Immune response against plasmodium
Immune response against Leishmania
Complement system
Immune cells for immunity against Leishmania
Immunity against filariasis
Immunity against helminths
Conclusion
References
Chapter 30: Malaria: Epidemiology, pathogenesis, and therapeutics
Introduction
Background of the disease
Causative agent of malaria
Life cycle of a mosquito
Egg
Larva
Pupa
Adult
Life cycle and taxonomic classification of Plasmodium sp.
Systematic position [23]
Life cycle
Asexual cycle in human
Sexual cycle in anopheles
Transmission of the disease
Types and nature of the disease
Geographical distribution
Risk of travelers
Types of travelers
Variation of malaria transmission in some areas
Symptoms and diagnosis of malaria
Early and late-onset symptoms of malaria
Role of nanoparticles in disease diagnosis
Clinical aspects
Host-parasite interaction
Host-parasite interaction in Plasmodium invasion stages
Factors affecting erythrocyte invasion
Host immunity
Comparative analysis of parasitemia created by different Plasmodium species
Activation of host immune responses and clearance
Immune evasion mechanisms
Host defense through hemoglobinopathy-associated immune mechanisms
Role of genetics
Role of plasmodium genetics: Antigenic variation
Role of human genetics conferring resistance to malaria
Hemoglobinopathies
Mutations in erythrocyte surface antigens
Cytoskeletal abnormalities
Enzyme deficiencies
Malaria risk and prevention
Personal and unit protection
Personal Protection
Unit protection
Risk of children and pregnant women
Risk of children
Protection of children from malaria
Risk of pregnant females
Risk of infants
Chemoprophylaxis
Treatment
Artemisinin-based combination therapies
Emergence of drug resistance
Vaccines against malaria
Conclusion
References
Chapter 31: Infection of the gastrointestinal tract: Giardiasis and amoebiasis
Introduction
Giardia lamblia
Etiology and epidemiology
Pathophysiology
Clinical features
Clinical investigations
Management
Entamoeba histolytica
Etiology and epidemiology
Pathophysiology
Clinical features
Clinical investigations
Management
Recent advancement
Conclusion
References
Chapter 32: Epidemiology and management of neurocysticercosis: An update
Introduction
Epidemiology of neurocysticercosis
Pathology and pathogenesis
Diagnosis
History and physical examination
Classification of neurocysticercosis on basis of neuroimaging
Inactive neurocysticercosis
Active neurocysticercosis
Active subarachnoid neurocysticercosis
Other forms of cysticercosis
Serology
Treatment
Socioeconomic challenges and neurocysticercosis eradication
Conclusion
References
Chapter 33: Treatment strategies against selected common tropical parasitic diseases
Introduction
Chemotherapeutic agents against parasites
Challenges to chemotherapy and evolution of treatment strategies
Immunotherapy against parasitic diseases: An alternative approach
Concluding remarks
References
Chapter 34: An overview on leishmaniasis
Introduction
Clinical presentation
Visceral leishmaniasis
Epidemiology
Etiology
L. donovani
L. infantum/L. chagasi
Pathophysiology
Life cycle
Pathogenesis
Risk factors
Immunology
Diagnosis
Treatment
PKDL
Epidemiology
Pathogenesis and immunology
Life cycle
Signs and symptoms
Diagnosis
Leishmanin skin test
Culture and microscopy
rK-39 strip test
Molecular-based diagnosis
Treatment
Sodium antimony gluconate
Amphotericin B
Miltefosine
Combination therapy
Conclusion
References
Chapter 35: Leishmaniasis: Biology, clinical diagnosis, and treatment
Introduction
The Leishmania life cycle
Epidemiology of leishmaniasis
Clinical leishmaniasis
Cutaneous leishmaniasis
Mucocutaneous leishmaniasis (MCL)
Visceral leishmaniasis (VL)
Leishmaniasis recidivans (LR)
Post kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis (PKDL)
Diagnosis of leishmaniasis
Prevention of leishmaniasis
Treatment
Parenteral therapy
Oral therapy
Local therapy
Cryo-, heat-, and photodynamic therapy
Secondary prophylaxis
References
Chapter 36: Natural products in the treatment of Leishmaniasis
Introduction
Taxonomy, morphology, and life cycle of leishmania
Clinical manifestations of leishmaniasis
Diagnosis and detection of leishmaniasis
Current therapeutic regimen of leishmaniasis and their shortcomings
Natural products as promising alternatives for the treatment of leishmaniasis
Various plant-derived natural compounds and their mode of action
Quinones
Alkaloids
Lignans
Tannins
Iridoids
Terpenoids
Sterols
Oxylipin
Flavonoids
Chalcones
Saponins
Approaches to overcome multidrug resistance (MDR) by natural antileishmanial compounds
Future perspectives and concluding remarks
References
Chapter 37: Immunomodulators: Progress and prospects in Leishmania infection
Introduction
Leishmania species parasitic to human
Clinical classification of leishmaniasis
Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL)
Mucocutaneous leishmaniasis (MCL)
Visceral leishmaniasis (VL)
Available therapies and challenges
Antimonials
Amphotericin B and its liposomal formulations
Paromomycin and miltefosine
Pentamidine isothionate and azole medicines
Immunomodulators as alternatives
Checkpoint inhibitors
Cytokines
Agonists
Adjuvants
Immunomodulators in metabolic diseases
Immunomodulatory effect of vitamin D
Immunomodulatory role of CD38
Intestinal IgA acts as a modulator of the gut microbiota
Heat shock proteins as immunomodulators
Immunomodulators in infectious diseases
Effect of IL-12 in infectious diseases
Role of IL-2 in HIV infection
Pharmaco-immunomodulatory therapy in COVID-19
Adjuvant immunomodulators as therapeutics of severe influenza
Progress of immunomodulators in leishmaniasis
Important immunomodulators and their role in leishmaniasis
Future prospects
Discussion
References
Chapter 38: Nanoparticle-based approach toward leishmaniasis treatment
Introduction
Nanoparticle-based approaches
Polymeric nanoparticles
Liposomes
Solid-lipid nanoparticles
Metallic nanoparticles
Inorganic nanoparticles
Conclusion
References
Chapter 39: Management of parasitic infections
Introduction
Management
Protozoa
Helminths
Ectoparasites
Concluding remarks
References
Part V: Bacterial infections and therapeutics
Chapter 40: Bacterial infections: Antimicrobial mechanism of action and bacterial resistance
Introduction
Methods
Penicillin and its mechanism of action against bacteria
Mechanism of action
Metronidazole and its mechanism of action against bacteria
Mechanism of action
Quinolone and its mechanism of action against bacteria
Mechanism of action
Sulfonamide and its mechanism of action against bacteria
Mechanism of action
Bacterial resistance to antibiotics
Conclusions
References
Chapter 41: Sepsis presentation and pathophysiology
Introduction
Epidemiology of sepsis
Evolution in the definition of sepsis
Etiology
Urosepsis
Pneumonia
COVID-19
Intra-abdominal infections
Necrotizing soft tissue infections
Pathophysiology of sepsis
Clinical presentation, laboratory assessment, and sepsis phenotypes
Management
Immediate evaluation
Septic shock management
De-escalation of therapy
Outcomes
Concluding remarks
References
Chapter 42: Neonatal sepsis: Recent advances in pathophysiology and management
Introduction
Epidemiology
Classification
Early onset sepsis (EOS)
Late onset sepsis (LOS)
Neonatal immune system
Pathophysiology
Epigenetic variations
Infection-induced DNA methylation
Micro RNAs
Genetic polymorphism
Gene polymorphism in interleukins
Tumor necrosis factor-Gene polymorphism
Toll like receptors (TLR)-Gene polymorphism
Diagnosis
Screening tests
Immunohematological tests
Blood culture
PCR-based technology
Lumbar puncture
Urine culture
Radiological investigations
Management
Supportive
Antimicrobial therapy
Adjuvant therapy
Vitamin D
Zinc supplementation
Outcome and prognosis
Conclusion
References
Chapter 43: An update on tuberculosis
Introduction
Epidemiology and public health
Microbiology
Immunology
Tests and diagnostic approach
Clinical manifestations
Treatment
Current research
Conclusion
References
Chapter 44: Nutritional status in tuberculosis: A comprehensive problem to be addressed
Introduction
Impact of nutritional deficiency on TB
Impact of TB on nutritional status
Macronutrients and micronutrients in TB
Proteins
Cholesterol
Carbohydrates
Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs)
Vitamins
Vitamin A
Vitamin B1
Vitamin E
Vitamin B12
Vitamin C
Vitamin D
Minerals
Iron
Copper (Cu)
Zinc
Selenium
Calcium
Magnesium
Sodium
Phosphorous
Herbal supplements
Tea
Vegetarianism
Way forward
Personalized nutrition
Nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics
Nutriepigenomics and nutriepigenetics
Gut microbiome
Conclusion
References
Chapter 45: Clostridium difficile infection and gut microbiota: From fundamentals to microbiota-centered strategies
Introduction
Characteristic of C. difficile and C. difficile infection
What is C. difficile
C. difficile transmission and life cycle
Disease pathogenesis and clinical manifestations
Epidemiology
Gut microbiota and the maintenance of intestinal immunometabolic homeostasis
Targeting intestinal immunometabolic regulators under C. difficile infection that in turn functions under the gut microbial ...
Bile acid signaling
Endocannabinoid system
Aryl hydrocarbon receptor
Nuclear receptor superfamily
Gut microbiota associated with CDI
Microbiota-associated risk factor for CDI
Interaction of C. difficile with gut commensals: Evidence from experimental studies
Studies with antibiotic treatment
Studies utilizing germ-free (GF) mice
Studies with mono-strain interactions
Studies with probiotic consortia
Fecal microbiota transfer in CDI
Evidence-based prophylaxis against CDI
Conclusion
References
Chapter 46: Nanoparticle-based treatment of bacterial biofilms
Introduction
Role of antibiotics in biofilm treatment
Nanoparticle-based approaches for treating bacterial biofilms
Metal nanoparticles
Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs)
Iron nanoparticles
Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs)
Copper nanoparticles
Silica nanoparticles
Metal oxide nanoparticles
Other nanomaterials
Liposomes
Chitosan nanoparticles
PLGA nanoparticles
Current strategies in biofilm treatment
Sutures and wound dressings
Oral implants
Heart valves and pacemakers
Catheters
Endotracheal tubes
Contact lenses
Drug delivery
Conclusion
References
Chapter 47: The NET response to biofilm infections
Introduction
Biofilms
Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs)
NETosis and the clearance of biofilms
Chromatin
Granular proteins
Reactive species
Phagocytosis
Biofilms and the evasion of NETosis
Matrix
Secreted proteins
Adaptation
Conclusions
References
Chapter 48: The challenge of pulmonary Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection: How to bridge research and clinical pathology
Introduction
Clinical presentation and pathology
Hospital acquired pneumonia
Community acquired pneumonia
Pneumonia in immunocompromised patients
Cystic fibrosis
Pathogenicity
Virulence factors
Outer membrane
Released products and other bacterial products
Protein secretion systems
Iron acquisition systems
Quorum sensing
Biofilm formation
Antibiotic resistance
Host immune response alteration
Animal models
Rodent models
Acute pulmonary inflammation
Chronic pulmonary infection
Models with immunomodulation
Immunization models
2-Hit sepsis model
Non-rodent models
Pig models
Rabbit models
Ferret models
Invertebrate models
References
Chapter 49: Pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, and treatment of leprosy
Introduction
Symptoms and signs of leprosy
Etiology
Pathogenesis
Classification/types of leprosy
WHO classification
Ridley-Jopling classification
Clinical features
Tuberculoid (TT)
Borderline tuberculoid (BT)
Midborderline leprosy (BB)
Borderline lepromatous leprosy (BL)
Lepromatous leprosy (LL)
Other variants
Indeterminate leprosy
Pure neuritic leprosy
Histoid leprosy
Diagnosis
Slit skin smear
Histopathology
Tuberculoid end
Lepromatous end
Other investigations
Management of Leprosy
Multidrug therapy (MDT)
Treatment of reactions
References
Chapter 50: Noncoding RNAs and their role in bacterial infections
Introduction
Types of noncoding RNAs
Housekeeping ncRNAs
Regulatory ncRNAs
Role of noncoding RNAs in infections
Conclusion
References
Part VI: Fungal infections and therapeutics
Chapter 51: Fungal infection: An unrecognized threat
Introduction
Athletes foot
Jock itch
Ringworm
Yeast infection
Fungal nail infection (onychomycosis)
Fungal eye infections
Blastomycosis
Cryptococcus
Paracoccidioidomycosis
Coccidioidomycosis (valley fever)
Aspergillosis
Candida auris infection
Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP)
Mucormycosis
Talaromycosis
Sporotrichosis
Mycetoma
Fungal diseases and COVID-19
Preventive approach-Host defense to fungal infection
Immune response to fungi
Fungal infection threats
Drug resistance molecular mechanisms
New antifungal strategies
Conclusion
References
Part VII: Other infections
Chapter 52: Zoonosis and infectious diseases
Introduction
Factors influencing zoonosis
Microbial adaptations
Susceptibility to infection
Human population density
Annual seasons
Hygiene and sanitation
Contamination of ecosystem
Economic development and surveillance
Origin of COVID-19
References
Further reading
Chapter 53: Prion diseases: A rare group of neurodegenerative disorders
Introduction
Prion disease study and its importance
Prion diseases biology and genetics
Human prion diseases
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) or classic CJD
Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD)
Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker (GSS) syndrome
Fatal familial insomnia (FFI)
Kuru
Animal prion diseases
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)
Chronic wasting disease (CWD)
Scrapie
Feline spongiform encephalopathy (FSE)
Transmissible mink encephalopathy (TME)
Ungulate spongiform encephalopathy
Recent advances in prion research
Cerebral organoids as prion research model
Eye as prion research model
Transgenic mice models
Treatment for prion diseases
Prion disease immunotherapeutics
Vaccine-based therapies
Conclusion
References
Chapter 54: Diabetic foot infections: An overview of pathogenesis, microbiology, and management
Introduction
Pathogenesis of diabetic foot infection
Microbiological considerations
Severity assessment at initial evaluation
Management of diabetic foot infection
Diagnostic considerations
Treatment
Antimicrobial therapy
Surgical treatment
Outcomes
Importance issues in developing countries
Conclusion
References
Part VIII: Therapeutic interventions and strategies
Chapter 55: New antibiotics
Introduction
Drug development process
New drug approvals
Ceftaroline
Fidaxomicin
Bedaquiline
Dalbavancin
Tedizolid
Oritavancin
Ceftolozane-tazobactam
Ceftazidime-avibactam
Delafloxacin
Meropenem-vaborbactam
Plazomicin
Eravacycline
Omadacycline
Imipenem-cilastatin-relebactam
Lefamulin
Cefiderocol
Conclusions
References
Chapter 56: Vaccines: An overview
Introduction
What is a vaccine?
Immune response to vaccines
Herd immunity
Vaccine types and examples
Viral, bacterial, and vector-based vaccines
Live-attenuated vaccines (Table 1)
Inactivated vaccines (Table 1)
Methods for developing attenuated vaccines
Reassortant vaccines
Vector-based vaccines
Subunit vaccines (Table 2)
Protein subunit vaccines
Virus-like particles
Polysaccharide vaccines
Polysaccharide conjugate vaccines
Toxoid vaccines
Messenger RNA vaccines
Vaccine safety
Vaccine manufacture and development (Figs. 2 and 3)
Postlicensing/authorization surveillance for vaccine safety
Vaccine adverse event reporting (VAERS)
Vaccine safety datalink (VSD)
Clinical immunization safety assessment (CISA) project
Postlicensure rapid immunization safety monitoring system (PRISM)
MedWatch: Medical product safety information
Vaccine manufacturers
Other surveillance mechanisms or entities
Vaccine ingredients and additives
Adjuvants
Stabilizers
Preservatives
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Yeast
Egg protein
Lipid nanoparticles
Vaccine licensing
General recommendations on immunizations (ACIP immunization calendar)
Pregnancy and vaccination
Vaccination in special circumstances
Conclusion
References
Chapter 57: Bromhexine: Into the spotlight
Introduction
Medicinal properties
Bromhexine
Bromhexine for treatment of COVID-19
Effect of bromhexine on endocrine system
Effect of bromhexine on lipase enzyme
Use of bromhexine in different diseases
Veternary use of bromhexine
Conclusion
References
Chapter 58: Antimicrobial (viral, bacterial, fungal, and parasitic) mechanisms of action of boron-containing compounds
Introduction
Antiviral effects of boron-containing compounds
Antibacterial effects of BCC
Antifungal agents
Antiprotozoal effects of BCC
Chemical properties of some BCC proposed as antimicrobials
Concluding remarks and future perspectives
References
Part IX: Enhancing immune competence
Chapter 59: Role of natural products in infectious diseases
Introduction
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
Flavonoids
Coumarin derivatives
Alkaloids
Terpens
Lignans
Phenolics
SARS-CoV-2
Polyphenols
Flavonoids
Alkaloids
Hepatitis
Alkaloids
Polyphenols
Terpenoids
Malaria
Alkaloids
Flavonoids
Terpenes
Xanthones
Dengue
Alkaloids
Flavonoids
Terpenes and terpinoids
Conclusion
References
Chapter 60: Development of biodegradable vehicles as novel therapeutic intervention against multidrug-resistant bacteria
Introduction
Constitutional and morphological portrayals of the nano-HAP
Assurance of hydrodynamic size and surface charge of orchestrated HAP nanoparticles (NPs)
Functionalized HAP nanoparticles successfully overcome bacterial obstruction in E. faecalis
HAPVANFA-specific bactericidal movement affirmed by the disc dispersion strategy
Functionalized HAPs show great bactericidal movement
HAP nanoparticles display great biocompatibility
Treatment of MDR E. faecalis with HAPVANFA altogether reduces the bacterial cells reasonability
Systems behind the bactericidal action of functionalized HAP
Functionalized HAP exhibits promising intracellular properties
HAPVANFA boosts intracellular ROS generation, resulting in bacterial cell death
Actual interactions between HAPVANFA nanoparticles and bacterial cells
Conclusion
References
Further reading
Chapter 61: Heterocyclic compounds as antimicrobial agents
Introduction
Heterocyclic compounds with antimicrobial activities
Antiviral compounds
Antifungal compounds
Antiparasitic compounds
Compounds with antimalarial activity
Compounds with antileishmanial activity
Compounds with antitrypanosomal activity
Compounds with anthelmintic activity
Antibacterial compounds
Heterocyclic antimicrobials in clinical trials
Conclusion
References
Chapter 62: Potential role of healthy microbiome in metabolic syndrome and immune competence
Introduction
Anatomical areas of microbiome association
Lungs
Gut
Factors influencing the human microbiota
Influence of food/diet
Influence of drugs
Influence of human lifestyle
The evolution of the intestinal microbiota through aging
The human microbiome in health sustenance
The human microbiome and disease
Metabolic syndrome
Obesity
Cardiovascular health problem
Restoring a balanced microbiome through diet and lifestyle
Concluding remarks
References
Chapter 63: Role of nutrients in combating infection
Introduction: Underpinning nutrition
Infectious disease and nutritional status
Malnutrition and interface with immune response
Type of infectious diseases and influence of nutrition
Bacterial infection and nutrition
Viral infection and nutrition
Parasitic infection and nutrition
Nutritional issues during major infections: Case studies
Nutrition and diarrhoeal disease
Nutrition and malaria
Nutrition and soil transmitted helminths (STH)
Nutrition and HIV and tuberculosis
Energy
Protein
Fat
Micronutrients
Nutrition and COVID-19
Drug-nutrition interaction during infectious disease
Conclusion
References
Chapter 64: The relevance of electrolyzed water to infectious and chronic diseases
Introduction of electrolyzed water
History and development of electrolyzed water
The generation instrument of electrolyzed water
Acid electrolyzed water (AEW)
Weak acid electrolyzed water (WAEW)
Basic electrolyzed water (BEW)
Neutral electrolyzed water (NEW)
Factors affecting the antimicrobial properties of electrolyzed water
Mechanism and disincentive effect of electrolyzed water
Antimicrobial activity of electrolyzed water
Antimicrobial effect of acid electrolyzed water
Antimicrobial effect of weak acid electrolyzed water
Antimicrobial effect of basic electrolyzed water
Antimicrobial effect of neutral electrolyzed water
Combination of electrolyzed water and various preservation technologies
Organic acids
Ultrasound
Thermal processing
UVC light-emitting diodes (UVC-LED)
Antifungal effect of electrolyzed water
Antifungal mechanism of electrolyzed water
Antifungal effect of acid electrolyzed water
Antifungal effect of weak acid electrolyzed water
Antifungal effect of neutral electrolyzed water
Antifungal effect of basic electrolyzed water
Antivirus effect of electrolyzed water
Inhibition of avian influenza virus by electrolyzed water
Inhibition of enteric viruses by electrolyzed water
Potential of electrolyzed water on severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)
Potential of electrolyzed water for health promotion
Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM)
Animal trial of basic electrolyzed water against diabetes
Clinical trial of basic electrolyzed water against diabetes
Wound healing
The effect of acid electrolyzed water on wound healing
The effect of weak acid electrolyzed water on wound healing
Antiobesity
The effect of acid electrolyzed water on antiobesity
The effect of basic electrolyzed water on antiobesity
The effects of electrolyzed water on the gut microbiota
Antitumor
Conclusions and perspective
References
Further reading
Chapter 65: Probiotics and immunity: An overview
Introduction
Role of probiotics in gut dysbiosis
Antimicrobials and probiotics
Probiotics and bacteria
Probiotics and viruses
Probiotics and respiratory viral infections
Probiotics and gastrointestinal virus infections
Probiotics and other viral diseases
Mechanisms of action
Probiotics in cancer immunotherapy
Probiotics in autoimmune disorders
Conclusion
References
Chapter 66: Mechanisms of gastrointestinal pathogenesis and landscape of intestinal immunity
Introduction
Mechanism of gastrointestinal pathogenesis
Escherichia coli infection
Enteropathogenic E. coli
Enterohaemorrhagic E. coli
Enterotoxic E. coli
Enteroinvasive E. coli
Enteroaggregative E. coli
Diffusely adherent E. coli
Adherent invasive E. coli
Shiga toxin producing enteroaggregative E. coli
Shigella spp.
Salmonella spp.
Yersinia spp.
Vibrio cholerae
Campylobacter spp.
Enterococcal infection
Helicobacter pylori
Entamoeba histolytica
Giardia duodenalis/Giardia lamblia
Cryptosporidium spp.
Helminth infection
Intestinal immune response against pathogenesis
Barrier effects of the gut
Role of gut epithelial cells in immune response
Role of gut-associated lymphoid tissue
Effect of antigen uptake and immune response
Role of secretory IgA
Role of functional foods on immune-boosting activity
Concluding remarks
References
Commentary: A treatise on diverse pathogenic infections and potential therapeutics
Introduction
Factors that affect changes in life expectancy
The paradigm shift in food preparation
Modernization and chronic degenerative diseases
Future perspectives and prospects
Therapeutic perspectives
Boosting immune competence
Momordica charantia (bitter melon)
Herpes viruses and L-lysine
Concluding remarks
References
Index
Back Cover