Violence and Aggression: Integrating Theory, Research, and Practice

Preface
A Functional Approach to Aggression and Violence
Why Did I Write This Book?
Avoid Unnecessary Pathologizing of Aggression
Modest Optimism
References
Contents
Part I: Introductory Concepts
Chapter 1: Definitions of Violence and Aggression
1.1 What Are Aggression and Violence?
1.2 Aggression or Violence?
1.2.1 Less Immediately Physically Harmful Forms of Aggression
1.3 Types of Aggression and Violence
1.3.1 Hostile and Instrumental Aggression and Violence
1.3.2 Structural and Functional Categories
1.3.3 Categorization by Severity of Aggression and Violence
1.3.4 Policy-Driven Definitions
1.3.5 Theoretically-Driven Approaches
1.3.6 Measurement Systems that Define Aggression and Violence
1.3.7 Behavioral Approaches
1.3.8 Summary
1.4 Legal Definitions
1.5 Normal Versus Abnormal Violence and Aggression
1.5.1 Statistical Approaches
1.5.2 Association with Psychopathology
1.6 Summary
References
Chapter 2: Measurement of Violence and Aggression
2.1 Archival Measures
2.1.1 Archival Data on War Crimes, Genocide, Ethnic Cleansing
2.2 Interview Measures
2.3 Psychometric Measures
2.4 Physiological Measures
2.5 Experimental-Analog Measure
2.6 Observational Measures
2.7 Economic Evaluation
2.8 Risk Assessment
2.9 Summary
References
Chapter 3: Epidemiology of Violence and Aggression
3.1 Epidemiological Concepts
3.2 Human Aggression and Violence
3.2.1 Global Population Studies
3.2.1.1 Global Murder Rates
3.2.1.2 Women
3.2.1.3 Children as Victims
3.2.1.4 Parents as Victims
3.2.2 Violence in the USA
3.2.2.1 Murder Rates
3.2.2.2 Other American Aggression and Violence
3.3 Risk Factors in Humans
3.3.1 Interpersonal Disputes
3.3.2 Alcohol and Illicit Drugs
3.3.3 Crowding
3.3.4 Temperature
3.3.5 Access to Weapons
3.3.6 Poverty and Income Inequality
3.3.7 At Risk Settings
3.3.8 What Makes a Hot Spot?
3.3.9 Ethnicity and Cultural Groups
3.3.10 Medical Conditions
3.3.11 COVID and Aggression and Violence
3.3.12 Summary
3.4 At Risk Populations
3.4.1 Psychiatric Disorders
3.4.2 Individuals with Developmental Disabilities
3.4.3 Youth in Residential Settings
3.4.4 Older Adults in Residential Care
3.4.5 Comment: Some Common Factors?
3.5 Nonhuman Animals
3.5.1 Aggression in Dogs
3.6 Summary
References
Part II: Causes
Chapter 4: Biological Evolution of Violence and Aggression. I. Evolution and Genetics
4.1 What Is a Cause?
4.2 Biological Causes
4.3 Biological Evolution of Aggression
4.3.1 The Contribution of Konrad Lorenz
4.3.2 Sexual Selection and Aggression
4.3.2.1 The Selfish Gene
4.3.2.2 Sexual Selection and Aggression
4.3.2.3 Selection of Human Aggression?
4.3.2.4 Killing Your Family
4.3.2.5 Human Infanticide and Biological Evolution
4.3.2.6 Human Cultural Practices
4.4 Genetics
4.4.1 Interspecies Differences in Aggression
4.4.2 Breeding Domestic and Laboratory Animals
4.4.2.1 Domestication of Animals
4.4.2.2 Laboratory Animals
4.4.2.3 Genetics, Culture, and Learning Interact
4.4.3 Human Genetic Studies
4.4.3.1 Human Twin Studies
4.4.3.2 Single Human Genes
4.4.3.3 Genetics of Psychopathy
4.4.3.4 The XYY Syndrome
4.4.3.5 Disability-related Genetic Syndromes
4.5 Epigenetics and Aggression
4.5.1 Cichlid Epigenetic Model
4.6 Critiques of Evolutionary and Genetic Models
4.6.1 Critiques from Feminist Theories
4.7 Summary
References
Chapter 5: Biological Evolution of Violence and Aggression. II: Brains, Neurotransmitters, and Hormones
5.1 Brain Structures
5.1.1 Types of Evidence
5.1.2 Brain Structures
5.1.3 The Limbic System
5.1.4 Cortical Structures
5.1.5 Summary
5.2 Neurotransmitters
5.2.1 Serotonin
5.2.2 Dopamine
5.2.3 Other Neurotransmitters
5.2.4 Summary
5.3 Hormones
5.3.1 Basic Endocrinological Concepts
5.3.2 Testosterone
5.3.2.1 Anabolic Steroids and “Roid Rage”
5.3.3 Corticosteroids
5.3.4 The Dual Hormone Hypothesis
5.3.5 Thyroxin
5.3.6 Oxytocin and Vasopressin
5.3.7 Summary
5.4 Summary
References
Chapter 6: Social Causes of Violence and Aggression: I. Cultural Evolution
6.1 What Is Cultural Evolution?
6.1.1 Skinner and Cultural Evolution
6.1.2 Cultural Evolution, Aggression, and Violence
6.1.3 Summary
6.2 Cultural Evolution in Non-Human Primates
6.2.1 Organized Violence in Primates
6.2.1.1 Chimpanzees
6.2.1.2 Bonobos
6.2.1.3 Comment
6.2.1.4 Application to Humans
6.2.2 Limitations in Applications to Humans: Contemporary Human Wars
6.3 Chapter Summary
References
Chapter 7: Social Causes of Violence and Aggression: II. Human Cultural Evolution
7.1 Differences in Aggression in Human Cultures
7.1.1 Cultural Differences in Homicide
7.1.2 Historical Trends in Human Homicide
7.1.2.1 Broad Historical Trends
7.1.2.2 Recent Homicide Data
7.1.2.3 How We Got Civilized
7.1.2.4 Conclusions
7.1.3 US Southern Culture
7.1.4 The Cosa Nostra
7.1.4.1 Selecting and Training Murderers
7.1.5 Race Riots and Pogroms
7.1.5.1 Tulsa Race Riot 1921
7.1.5.2 Pogroms
7.1.5.3 Race Riots and Pogroms: Similarities and Differences
7.2 Cultural Extinction and Homicide
7.2.1 Viking Extinction in Greenland
7.2.1.1 The Role of Aggression and Violence in Cultural Extinction
7.3 Functional Explanations of Cultural Differences and Evolution
7.3.1 Nonviolent Protest
7.4 Summary
References
Chapter 8: Social Causes of Violence and Aggression: III. Evolution of Aggression over the Lifespan
8.1 Classical Conditioning
8.2 The Selecting Environment
8.2.1 Reinforcement and Shaping of Aggression
8.2.2 Chaining
8.2.3 Generalized Imitation
8.2.3.1 Bandura and Bobo Dolls
8.2.4 Schedule-Induced Aggression
8.2.5 Summary
8.3 Anger and Aggression
8.3.1 Skinner, Emotions, and Aggression
8.3.2 Novel Aggressive and Angry Responding
8.4 Behavioral Self-Control
8.4.1 Skinner and Self-Control
8.4.2 Interventions to Reduce Impulsivity
8.4.3 Summary
8.5 Verbal Behavior
8.6 Summary
References
Chapter 9: Psychological and Sociological Theories of Violence and Aggression
9.1 Psychoanalytic Theory
9.1.1 Sigmund Freud’s Theories
9.1.2 Anna Freud’s Contribution
9.1.3 Fonagy, Mentalization, and Aggression
9.1.4 Comment
9.2 The Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
9.3 Social Learning Theory
9.3.1 The Coercive Family Processes Model
9.3.2 Summary
9.4 Behavior Analytic Theory
9.5 Cognitive Neo-Associationist Theories
9.6 General Aggression Model
9.7 Feminist Theories
9.8 Social Role Theory
9.9 Conclusions
References
Part III: Assessment, Treatment, and Prevention
Chapter 10: Assessment for Treatment of Violence and Aggression
10.1 Functional Assessment and Analysis
10.1.1 Methods
10.1.1.1 Indirect Methods
10.1.1.2 Direct Observational Methods
10.1.1.3 Functional Analysis
10.1.1.4 Comment
10.2 Assessment of Aggression- and Anger-Related Cognition
10.3 Case Formulation
10.3.1 Case Formulation and Aggression and Violence: Nonforensic Applications
10.3.2 Case Formulation and Aggression and Violence: Forensic Applications
10.3.2.1 Daffern et al.’s Typology of Function
10.3.2.2 Multiple Sequential Functional Analysis
10.3.2.3 Vedel and Emmelkamp’s (2011) Method
10.3.2.4 Offense Paralleling Behavior
10.3.3 Training Practitioners in Forensic Case Formulation
10.3.4 Summary
10.4 Chapter Summary
References
Chapter 11: Individual Biological Interventions for Violence and Aggression. I. Psychopharmacology and Hormonal Treatments
11.1 Psychopharmacological Intervention
11.1.1 Acute Aggression and Violence
11.1.2 As Needed (PRN) Medications
11.1.3 Routinely Prescribed Psychotropic Medications
11.1.3.1 Antipsychotics
11.1.4 Intermittent Explosive Disorder
11.1.5 Epilepsy, Psychotropic Medications, and Aggression
11.1.6 Conclusions
11.2 Hormonal Treatments
11.2.1 Surgical and Chemical Castration
11.2.2 Treatment of Hyperthyroidism and Aggression
11.2.3 Oxytocin- and Vasopressin-Based Treatment of Aggression
11.2.4 Hormones and Individual Case Formulation
11.2.5 Summary
11.3 Chapter Summary
References
Chapter 12: Individual Biological Interventions for Violence and Aggression. II. Other Biological Treatments
12.1 Neurosurgery
12.1.1 History of Neurosurgery
12.1.2 Lobotomy
12.1.3 Amygdalotomy
12.1.4 Hypothalamic Surgery
12.1.5 Cingulotomy
12.1.6 Summary and Conclusion
12.2 Electrical and Magnetic Brain Stimulation
12.2.1 Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation
12.2.2 Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
12.2.3 Deep Brain Stimulation
12.2.4 Vagal Nerve Stimulation
12.2.5 Summary
12.3 Electro-Convulsive Therapy
12.4 Dietary Treatments
12.4.1 Serotonergic Diets
12.4.2 Omega-3 Fatty Acid Diets
12.4.3 Caffeine
12.4.4 Summary
12.5 Chapter Summary
References
Chapter 13: Cultural Design to Change Violence and Aggression. I. Radical Behavioral Approaches
13.1 Skinner and Cultural Design
13.2 Designing Cultures
13.3 Walden Two
13.4 Planned Behavioral Communities
13.4.1 Comunidad Los Horcones
13.4.2 Sunflower House
13.4.3 Twin Oaks
13.4.4 Comment
13.5 Behavioral Cultural Interventions for Violence
13.5.1 Gang Violence
13.5.2 La Violencia
13.5.3 Police Violence
13.5.4 Comment
13.6 Challenges in Explicit Cultural Design
13.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 14: Cultural Interventions to Change Violence and Aggression. II. Broad-Based Intuitive Approaches
14.1 Utopias
14.1.1 The Oneida Community
14.1.2 Hutterites
14.1.3 Comment
14.2 Cultural Evolution of Peace: Truth and Reconciliation
14.2.1 Rough Justice After World War II
14.2.1.1 Nuremberg
14.2.2 Restorative Justice
14.2.2.1 South Africa and the End of Apartheid
14.2.2.2 Northern Ireland and the Troubles
14.2.2.3 Canada and First Nations
14.2.2.4 Comment
14.3 Building a More Violent Society
14.3.1 Hate Schools
14.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 15: Cultural Interventions to Change Violence and Aggression. III. Intuitive Focused Approaches
15.1 Child Rearing Practices
15.2 Schools and Other Educational Settings
15.2.1 Meta-Analyses of School-Based Interventions
15.2.2 School-Wide Positive Behavior Support
15.2.3 Student Violence Against Teachers
15.2.4 Summary
15.3 Evidence-Based Policing to Reduce Violence
15.3.1 Overviews
15.3.2 Hotspot Policing and Violent Crime
15.3.3 Reducing Police Violence
15.3.3.1 Dashboard and Other Cameras
15.3.3.2 Replacing Police Services
15.3.4 Comment
15.4 National Prevention Programs
15.5 Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design
15.5.1 Street Lighting
15.5.2 Public Cameras
15.5.3 Preventing Access to Hotspot Locations
15.5.4 Conclusions
15.6 Media Interventions
15.7 Bystander Training
15.8 Arms Reduction Programs and Safe Gun Use
15.8.1 Teaching Gun Safety Skills
15.9 Alcohol Reduction Programs
15.10 Restorative Justice for Individuals
15.11 Summary
References
Chapter 16: Individual Therapies for Violence and Aggression: I. Cognitive and Behavioral Therapies
16.1 Cognitive Behavior Therapies
16.1.1 General Approach
16.1.2 Cognitive Behavior Therapy Outcome Research
16.1.3 Aggression Replacement Training
16.1.3.1 Beyond ART
16.1.4 Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy
16.1.5 Novaco’s Anger Management Program
16.1.6 Summary
16.2 Behavior Modification
16.2.1 General Characteristics
16.2.2 Reciprocal Inhibition and Anger
16.2.3 Operant Treatment of Aggressive Behavior
16.2.4 Token Economies
16.2.5 Good Behavior Game
16.2.6 Commentary
16.3 Applied Behavior Analysis
16.3.1 General Approach
16.3.1.1 An ABA Intervention for Aggression
16.3.1.2 Summary
16.3.2 Pain-Induced Aggression
16.3.3 Reinforcement of Aggression
16.3.4 Extinction-Induced Aggression
16.3.5 Comment
16.4 Third Wave Behavior Therapy
16.4.1 Acceptance and Commitment Therapy
16.4.2 Functional Analytic Psychotherapy
16.4.3 Dialectical Behavior Therapy
16.4.4 Mindfulness
16.4.5 Summary
16.5 Chapter Summary
References
Chapter 17: Individual Therapies for Violence and Aggression. II. Other Therapies
17.1 Couples and Family Therapy
17.1.1 The Duluth Model
17.1.2 Batterer Intervention Programs
17.1.3 Parent Skills Training
17.1.3.1 Incredible Years Parent Training
17.1.3.2 Positive Parent Training Program
17.1.3.3 Comment
17.1.4 Conjoint Therapy
17.1.5 Family Therapy
17.2 Psychoanalytic and Psychodynamic Psychotherapy
17.3 Counseling
17.4 Restorative Justice Practices
17.5 Martial Arts and Combat Sports
17.6 Boot Camps: Just Say No!
17.7 Other Psychosocial Interventions
17.8 Summary
References
Chapter 18: Treatment of Violence and Aggression in Children, Adolescents, Families, and Schools
18.1 Intervention in The Cradle of Violence
18.1.1 Family Violence Against Infants and Young Children
18.2 School-Based Interventions
18.2.1 General Prevention in Schools
18.2.2 Schools and Gangs
18.3 Delinquent Adolescents
18.3.1 Prevention of Youth Violence
18.3.2 Achievement Place
18.3.3 Adolescent Sex Offenders
18.3.4 Summary
18.4 Elder Abuse Within the Family
18.5 Chapter Summary
References
Chapter 19: Treatment of Violence and Aggression in Adults
19.1 Violent Adult Offenders
19.2 Psychiatric Disorders
19.2.1 Psychosocial Interventions
19.2.2 Pharmacological Interventions
19.2.3 Summary
19.3 Intellectual Disabilities and Autism Spectrum Disorders
19.3.1 Applied Behavior Analysis
19.3.2 Psychopharmacology
19.3.2.1 Risperidone, Autism, and Aggression
19.3.3 Comment
19.3.4 Other Psychosocial Interventions
19.3.5 Offenders with ID
19.3.5.1 Anger Management
19.3.5.2 Offender Rehabilitation Programs
19.3.6 Offenders with Autism Spectrum Disorders
19.3.6.1 Comment
19.3.7 Summary
19.4 Traumatic Brain Injury
19.4.1 Psychosocial Interventions
19.4.2 Psychopharmacology
19.4.3 Summary
19.5 Residential Settings
19.5.1 Youth Residential Services
19.5.2 Residential Services for Seniors
19.5.3 Residential Services for People with ID/ASD
19.5.4 Summary
19.6 Treatment of Victims
19.6.1 Infants and Young Children as Victims
19.6.2 Adolescents and Intimate Partner Violence
19.6.3 Adult Victims
19.6.3.1 Victims of Intimate Partner Violence
19.6.3.2 Violence and PTSD
19.6.4 Summary
19.7 Chapter Summary
References
Chapter 20: Future Directions in Research and Practice in Violence and Aggression: Reasons for Cautious Optimism
20.1 Biological Evolution and Selection of Human Aggression
20.2 Cultural Evolution and Design
20.2.1 Families: Cradles of Violence or Nests of Peace?
20.2.1.1 Raising Pro-Social, Non-violent Children
20.2.1.2 Reducing Violence Between Caretakers and Children
20.2.1.3 Violence Between Adult Family Members
20.2.1.4 Summary
20.2.2 Better Education Can Buffer Against Aggression and Violence
20.2.2.1 Violence on University Campuses
20.2.2.2 Failure to Adopt Evidence-Based Practices in Education
20.2.3 Controlling Access to Alcohol, Other Drugs, and Weapons
20.2.4 Effective, Non-coercive Police Service and Justice Systems
20.2.5 Control of Media
20.2.6 Summary
20.3 Selection of Individual People’s Behavior During the Lifespan
20.3.1 Learning During the Lifespan
20.3.2 Individual Therapies
20.4 Individual Biological Treatments
20.5 Support and Treatment of Victims and Building Resilience
20.6 The Challenge of Implementing What Works
20.6.1 An Example of Effective Dissemination: The National Academic Centers of Excellence for Youth Violence Prevention
20.6.2 Challenges to Implementation of Evidence-Based Practices
20.7 Summary
References
Index