Valorization of Agri-Food Wastes and By-Products
Copyright
Contents
Foreword
Introduction
Reference
Preface
List of contributors
1 Sustainability challenges in the valorization of agri-food wastes and by-products
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Wastes and by-products—global scenario
1.3 Food industrial wastes and by-products
1.4 Food industry wastes and renewable energy production
1.5 Composting of agri-food wastes
1.6 Bioactive compounds and bioactivity
1.7 Wastes and by-products as food and livestock feed
1.8 Bioplastics and green composites
1.9 Sustainable green processing technologies
1.10 Regulatory issues
1.11 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
Acknowledgment
References
Further Reading
2 Valorization of industrial by-products and waste from tropical fruits for the recovery of bioactive compounds, recent adv...
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Isolation and extraction methods of bioactive compounds from tropical fruit by-products and wastes
2.2.1 Influence of conventional extraction techniques on bioactive compounds
2.2.2 Nonconventional extraction techniques
2.2.2.1 Ultrasound-assisted extraction and bioactive compounds
2.2.2.2 Microwave extraction-assisted and bioactive compounds
2.2.2.3 Supercritical fluid extraction and bioactive compounds
2.2.2.4 Pressurized liquid and bioactive compounds
2.2.2.5 Pulsed electric field and bioactive compounds
2.2.2.6 High hydrostatic pressure and bioactive compounds
2.2.2.7 Enzymatic-assisted extraction and bioactive compounds
2.2.2.8 Influence of combined techniques on bioactive compounds
2.3 Fermentation to obtain bioactive compounds from tropical fruits
2.4 Possible uses of by-products and wastes in the food industry
2.4.1 As ingredients of functional food
2.4.2 As sources of unconventional oils
2.4.3 As additives
2.4.3.1 Colorants
2.4.3.2 Texturizing
2.4.4 Antimicrobial agents
2.4.5 Bio-absorbent agents
2.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
References
3 Bioactive compounds of fruit by-products as potential prebiotics
3.1 Introduction
3.2 World crop production: focus on the fruit scenario
3.3 Fruit by-products as functional compounds and their relationship with gut microbiota
3.4 Dietary fibers and phenolics in fruit by-products as bioactive compounds
3.5 Effect of fruit by-products on growth of beneficial microorganisms and their folate production
3.6 Fruit by-products and gut microbiota: phenolic metabolites and short-chain fatty acids
3.7 Potential biological effects of bioactive compounds from fruit by-products: antioxidant and antiinflammatory approaches
3.8 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
Acknowledgments
References
4 Valorization of fruit and vegetable waste for bioactive pigments: extraction and utilization
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Anthocyanins
4.2.1 Grapes
4.2.1.1 Current utilization
4.2.1.1.1 Natural food colorant
4.2.1.1.2 Natural food additive
4.2.1.1.3 Natural cosmetics ingredients
4.2.1.1.4 Natural biodegradable packaging films
4.2.1.2 Extraction of anthocyanins from grape waste
4.3 Betalains
4.3.1 Red beet
4.3.1.1 Current utilization
4.3.1.1.1 Natural food colorant
4.3.1.1.2 Functional ingredients
4.3.2 Extraction of betalains from red beet waste
4.4 Carotenoids
4.4.1 Tomatoes
4.4.1.1 Current utilization
4.4.1.1.1 Functional food ingredients
4.4.1.2 Extraction of carotenoids from tomato waste
4.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
References
5 Valuable bioactives from vegetable wastes
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Ranking of vegetables
5.1.2 Top producers of vegetables
5.1.3 Benefits of consuming vegetables
5.1.4 Production of vegetable wastes and byproducts
5.1.5 Measures undertaken to minimize vegetable wastes
5.2 Valorization of vegetable wastes and byproducts
5.2.1 Vitamins
5.2.2 Carotenoids
5.2.3 Flavonoids
5.2.4 Phenolic acids
5.3 Extraction of phytobioactives
5.3.1 Ultrasound-assisted extraction
5.3.2 Supercritical fluid extraction
5.3.3 Accelerated solvent extraction
5.3.4 Microwave-assisted extraction
5.3.5 Enzyme-assisted extraction
5.4 Sustainability through preservation of vegetable waste and byproducts
5.5 Potential applications of vegetable wastes and vegetable byproducts
5.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
References
6 Fruit byproducts as alternative ingredients for bakery products
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Fruit industry
6.2.1 Apple
6.2.2 Banana
6.2.3 Grape
6.2.4 Mango and guava
6.2.5 Melon and watermelon
6.2.6 Orange
6.2.7 Passion fruit
6.2.8 Pomegranate
6.3 Functional foods
6.4 Bakery products
6.4.1 Bread
6.4.2 Biscuits
6.4.3 Cookies
6.4.4 Cakes
6.4.5 Muffins
6.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
Acknowledgments
References
7 Fruit and vegetable by-products: novel ingredients for a sustainable society
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Bioactive molecules from fruit and vegetable by-products
7.2.1 Polyphenols
7.2.1.1 Biomedical impacts of phenolic compounds
7.2.2 The terpenes
7.2.2.1 Carotenoids
7.2.2.2 Limonoids
7.2.2.3 Saponins
7.2.2.4 6-Chromanols derivatives
7.2.3 Biomedical impacts of carotenoids
7.2.4 Dietary fiber
7.2.5 Biomedical impacts of dietary fiber
7.2.6 Polysaccharides
7.2.6.1 Phytosterols
7.2.7 Biomedical impacts of phytosterols
7.2.8 The organosulfurs
7.2.9 Biomedical impact of organosulfur compounds
7.2.10 Organic acids and plant amines
7.2.11 Biomedical impact of organic acids and amines
7.3 Sustained valorization of fruits and vegetable by-products
7.3.1 Apple by-products
7.3.1.1 Sustainable applications of apple by-products
7.3.1.1.1 In the food industry
7.3.1.1.2 In biotechnology
7.3.1.1.3 In the pharmaceutical industry
7.3.2 Citrus fruit by-products
7.3.2.1 Sustainable applications of citrus by-products
7.3.2.1.1 In the food industry
7.3.2.1.2 In biotechnology
7.3.2.1.3 In the pharmaceutical industry
7.3.3 Grape by-products
7.3.3.1 Sustainable applications of grape by-products
7.3.3.1.1 In the food industry
7.3.3.1.2 In biotechnology
7.3.3.1.3 In the pharmaceutical industry
7.3.4 Tropical fruits by-products
7.3.4.1 Mango by-products
7.3.4.1.1 Sustainable applications of mango by-products
In the food industry
In biotechnology
7.3.4.2 Banana by-products
7.3.4.2.1 Sustainable applications of banana by-products
In the food industry
In biotechnology
Bioethanol
In the pharmaceutical industry
In agriculture
Miscellaneous
7.3.4.3 Avocado by-products
7.3.4.3.1 Sustainable applications of avocado by-products
In the food industry
In biotechnology
In the pharmaceutical industry
7.3.5 Vegetable by-products
7.3.5.1 Carrot by-products
7.3.5.1.1 Substantial applications of carrot by-products
In the food industry
In the pharmaceutical industry
In biotechnology
7.3.5.2 Cauliflower by-products
7.3.5.2.1 Sustainable applications of cauliflower by-products
In the food industry
In biotechnology
In the pharmaceutical industry
7.3.5.3 Tomato by-products
7.3.5.3.1 Sustainable applications of tomato by-products
In the food industry
In the pharmaceutical industry
7.3.5.4 Miscellaneous vegetable waste and by-products
7.4 Innovative drying techniques and extraction methods for fruit and vegetable by-products
7.4.1 Infrared-assisted convective drying
7.4.2 Microwave and combined microwave drying
7.4.2.1 Microwave-assisted freeze-drying
7.4.3 Green technology: by-product extraction techniques
7.5 Innovations and sustainable food ingredients
7.6 Strategic road map for sustainable utilization of by-products
7.7 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
Acknowledgments
References
8 Current trends on the valorization of waste fractions for the recovery of alkaloids and polyphenols: case study of guarana
Abbreviations
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Guarana (Paullinia cupana)
8.2.1 Botanical description and traditional use
8.2.2 Chemical composition
8.2.2.1 Polyphenols and alkaloids
8.2.2.2 Polysaccharides and starch
8.2.3 Health aspects on the administration of guarana
8.2.4 Processing of guarana and products: current scenario
8.3 Emerging processing strategies to recover alkaloids and polyphenols
8.3.1 Extraction
8.3.1.1 Supercritical fluid extraction
8.3.1.2 Pressurized liquid extraction
8.3.1.3 Ultrasound-assisted extraction
8.3.1.4 High shear mixing
8.3.1.5 Microwave-assisted extraction
8.3.1.6 Enzyme-assisted extraction
8.3.2 Encapsulation
8.3.2.1 Wall materials
8.3.2.2 Spray drying
8.3.2.3 Spray chilling
8.4 Current trends and perspectives: biorefinery approach applied for the integral use of guarana
8.4.1 Production of extracts and microparticles: process intensification
8.4.2 Application in food products
8.4.3 Production of energy
8.4.3.1 Combustion
8.4.3.2 Microbial fuel cells
8.4.4 Production of specialty chemicals and fertilizers by solid-state fermentation
8.4.5 Production of industrial adsorbents
8.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
8.6 Conflict of interest
References
9 Coffee waste: a source of valuable technologies for sustainable development
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Coffee beans: chemical composition and structure
9.3 Coffee production and generated waste
9.4 Strategies used to valorize coffee waste
9.5 Bioproducts for food and pharmaceutical industry applications from coffee waste
9.5.1 Antioxidant compounds
9.5.2 Antimicrobials
9.5.3 Organic acids
9.5.4 Enzymes
9.5.5 Colorants
9.6 Bioenergy production from coffee waste
9.6.1 Biodiesel
9.6.2 Bioethanol
9.6.3 Biogas
9.7 Materials from coffee waste
9.7.1 Polymers for packaging materials
9.7.2 Building materials
9.8 Agricultural applications
9.8.1 Composting and fertilizers
9.8.2 Mushroom cultivation
9.9 Miscellaneous
9.9.1 Biosorbents
9.10 Conclusion and future perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
10 Valorization of coffee wastes for effective recovery of value-added bio-based products: an aim to enhance the sustainabi...
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Valorization of coffee wastes
10.2.1 Production of biofuels
10.2.1.1 Biomethane production
10.2.1.2 Bioethanol production
10.2.1.3 Production of biodiesel
10.2.1.4 Production of bio-oil/biochar/syngas
10.2.2 Recovery of value-added bioactives
10.2.3 Production of biomaterials
10.2.3.1 Organic acids
10.2.3.2 Enzymes
10.2.3.3 Polyhydroxyalkanoates and carotenoids
10.2.4 Development of bioadsorbents
10.3 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
References
11 Valorization of tea waste for multifaceted applications: a step toward green and sustainable development
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Biomass sources
11.3 Biomass valorization
11.3.1 Carbonization
11.3.2 Pyrolysis
11.3.3 Hydrothermal treatment
11.3.4 Microwave treatment
11.3.5 Chemical activation
11.4 Tea waste biomass: source, properties, and constituents
11.4.1 Field to tea industry
11.4.2 Tea waste residue/biomass from kitchens, cafeterias, canteens, and tea shops
11.4.3 Properties and constituents
11.5 Value-added products from tea waste
11.5.1 Adsorbents
11.5.2 Activated carbon
11.5.3 Magnetic adsorbents
11.5.4 Carbon nanodots
11.5.5 Graphene oxide dots
11.6 Multifaceted applications of valorized waste tea products
11.6.1 Sensing and detection
11.6.2 Pollutant removal, water treatment, and environmental remediation
11.6.3 Agriculture and food industry
11.6.4 Energy and catalysis
11.6.5 Biomedical applications
11.7 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
References
12 Various conversion techniques for the recovery of value-added products from tea waste
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Process integration for setting up a waste biorefinery
12.2.1 Biorefinery platforms
12.2.1.1 C6/C5 sugar platforms
12.2.1.2 Lignin platforms
12.2.1.3 Syngas platform
12.2.1.4 Hydrogen platform
12.2.1.5 Pyrolysis liquid platform
12.2.2 Technological processes
12.2.3 Feedstock groups
12.2.4 Product groups
12.3 Tea waste and its worldwide availability
12.4 Physicochemical properties of tea waste
12.5 Biofuel and bioenergy production
12.5.1 Products from thermochemical conversion
12.5.2 Biodiesel
12.5.3 Bioethanol
12.6 Solid fuel
12.7 Tea waste-based biorefinery and production of value-added product
12.7.1 Electrochemical
12.7.2 Chemical derivatives from tea waste
12.7.2.1 Caffeine
12.7.2.1.1 Manufacturing process of caffeine from tea waste
12.7.2.2 Polyphenols, pigments, and vitamins
12.7.2.3 Extenders in polymers
12.7.2.4 Plant growth regulators
12.7.2.5 Tea seed oil
12.7.2.6 Saponins
12.7.3 Animal feed and composting
12.7.4 Manufacturing of instant tea
12.7.5 Tobacco substitutes and foaming agents
12.8 Rules/regulations concerning the safety of valorization of tea wastes
12.9 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
References
13 Cocoa: Beyond chocolate, a promising material for potential value-added products
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Chemical composition of the cocoa pod
13.3 Cocoa process and its by-products and waste
13.4 Valorization of cocoa by-products and waste
13.4.1 Applications for the food industry, agriculture, and livestock
13.4.1.1 Dietary fiber
13.4.1.2 Pectin
13.4.1.3 Fertilizer
13.4.1.4 Animal feed
13.4.2 Applications for the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries
13.4.3 Environmental developments from cocoa waste
13.4.3.1 Biofuels
13.4.3.2 Materials for contaminant adsorption
13.4.4 Composite materials
13.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
Acknowledgments
References
14 Nuts by-products: the Latin American contribution
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Impact of nut by-products
14.2.1 Economic and environmental impact
14.3 Nutritional and functional nut by-products
14.3.1 Pistachios
14.3.1.1 Pistachio by-products
14.3.1.2 Chemical composition
14.3.1.3 Nutraceutical composition
14.3.1.4 Health benefits
14.3.1.5 Current and/or potential future industrial/commercial functional food products
14.3.2 Hazelnuts
14.3.2.1 Hazelnut by-products
14.3.2.2 Chemical composition
14.3.2.2.1 Skin or testa
14.3.2.2.2 Hard shell
14.3.2.3 Nutraceutical composition and antioxidant capacity
14.3.2.3.1 Other compounds
14.3.2.3.2 Antioxidant capacity
14.3.2.3.3 Skin (testa)
14.3.2.3.4 Shell
14.3.2.4 Health benefits
14.3.2.5 Current and/or potential future industrial/commercial functional food products
14.3.3 Almonds
14.3.3.1 Almond by-products
14.3.3.2 Chemical composition
14.3.3.3 Nutraceutical composition and antioxidant capacity
14.3.3.4 Health benefits
14.3.3.5 Current and potential uses at industrial and commercial levels, and as a functional food
14.3.4 Walnuts
14.3.4.1 Walnut by-products
14.3.4.2 Chemical composition
14.3.4.3 Nutraceutical composition
14.3.4.4 Health benefits
14.3.4.5 Current and/or potential future industrial/commercial functional food products
14.3.5 Brazil nuts
14.3.5.1 Brazil nut by-products
14.3.5.2 Chemical composition
14.3.5.3 Nutraceutical composition and antioxidant capacity
14.3.5.4 Health benefits
14.3.5.5 Current and potential industrial and commercial uses, and as a functional food
14.3.6 Pecans
14.3.6.1 Pecan by-products
14.3.6.2 Chemical composition
14.3.6.3 Nutraceutical composition
14.3.6.4 Health benefits
14.3.6.5 Current and/or potential future industrial/commercial functional food products
14.3.7 Cashew nuts
14.3.7.1 Cashew nut by-products
14.3.7.2 Chemical composition
14.3.7.3 Nutraceutical composition
14.3.7.4 Health benefits
14.3.7.5 Current and/or potential future industrial/commercial functional food products
14.4 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
References
15 Valorization of seeds of the genera Cucumis, Citrullus, and Cucurbita
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Cucurbitaceae family
15.3 Seed composition
15.4 Bioactive compounds
15.5 Valorization of seeds
15.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
Acknowledgment
References
16 Valorization of grape seeds
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Characterization and content of grape seeds
16.3 Extraction of phenolic compounds
16.3.1 Phenolic compounds of grape seeds
16.3.2 Methods of extraction
16.4 Extraction of oil
16.4.1 Chemical composition of grape seed oil
16.4.2 Methods of extraction
16.4.3 Uses of grape seed oil
16.5 Use as a biosorbent
16.6 Application of seed extracts in foods
16.7 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
References
17 Seed wastes and byproducts: reformulation of meat products
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Seeds and byproducts as fat replacers in meat products
17.3 Bioactive compounds from seeds for use in meat products
17.4 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
References
18 Recent advances and emerging trends in the utilization of dairy by-products/wastes
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Dairy industrial wastes
18.2.1 Dairy wastewater
18.2.2 Whey
18.3 Environmental impacts
18.4 Advanced biotechnological approaches in utilizing dairy wastes
18.4.1 Bioplastics
18.4.2 Exopolysaccharides
18.4.3 Galacto-oligosaccharides
18.4.4 Biofuels
18.4.5 Organic acids
18.4.6 Bioactive peptides
18.4.7 Single-cell protein
18.4.8 Biosurfactants
18.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
References
19 Whey: generation, recovery, and use of a relevant by-product
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Cheese manufacture
19.3 Characteristics of whey
19.4 Main destinations of whey
19.4.1 Food applications
19.4.2 Food supplements
19.4.3 Animal feed
19.4.4 Microencapsulation of probiotics
19.4.5 Fertilizers
19.4.6 Packaging
19.4.7 Flavor
19.4.8 Whey bioconversion
19.4.9 Organic chemicals
19.4.10 Therapeutic agents
19.4.10.1 Immunomodulatory activity
19.4.10.2 Immunological activity
19.4.10.3 Antibacterial activity
19.4.10.4 Antitumor activities
19.5 Whey recovery and purification
19.5.1 Membrane separation technology
19.5.2 Electrodialysis
19.5.3 Isoelectric precipitation
19.5.4 Adsorption
19.5.5 Chromatographic separation
19.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
References
20 Valorization of dairy by-products for functional and nutritional applications: recent trends toward the milk fat globule...
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Milk composition
20.3 Main by-products of the dairy industry: whey, skimmed milk, and buttermilk
20.3.1 Production of whey and main valorization
20.3.1.1 Production of whey
20.3.1.2 Processing of whey: from by-product to added-value ingredient
20.3.2 Production of skimmed milk and main valorization
20.3.3 Production of buttermilk and butter serum
20.4 New trends toward the valorization of buttermilk: specific interests in the milk fat globule membrane
20.4.1 Technofunctional properties of buttermilk
20.4.2 Health benefits of buttermilk components, including MFGM
20.4.3 Opportunities to produce food-grade ingredients enriched in polar lipids and MFGM from buttermilk
20.4.4 Diversity of MFGM-enriched ingredients
20.5 Wastewaters from processing, cleaning, and sanitary processes
20.6 Conclusions and future outlook
Acknowledgments
References
21 Sustainable utilization of gelatin from animal-based agri–food waste for the food industry and pharmacology
21.1 Introduction
21.1.1 Categories and scale of agri–food waste
21.2 Socioeconomic and environmental impact of agri–food waste
21.3 Valorization of agri–food waste
21.4 Gelatin: a value-added product from animal-derived waste
21.4.1 Gelatin derived from mammalian species
21.4.2 An alternative to mammalian gelatin: poultry gelatin
21.4.3 A promising approach: fish gelatin
21.5 Usage of animal-originated gelatin in the food industry
21.5.1 Gelatin as a paramount food additive
21.5.2 Gelatin as a coating and packaging material
21.6 Usage of animal-originated gelatin in pharmacology
21.6.1 Gelatin—an inactive ingredient in pharmaceutical products
21.6.2 Gelatin in tissue engineering
21.6.3 Other usages of gelatin in pharmacology
21.7 Challenges to animal-derived gelatin in the food and pharmacology industries
21.8 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
References
22 New food strategies to generate sustainable beef
22.1 Introduction
22.1.1 Reduce greenhouse gas emissions from cattle by changing the feed composition
22.1.1.1 Wine industry by-products
22.1.1.2 Olive mill by-products
22.2 Influence of the feed composition on the quality of beef
22.3 Case study
22.3.1 In vitro test
22.3.2 In vivo test
22.4 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
Acknowledgments
References
23 Valorization of wastes and by-products from the meat industry
23.1 Introduction
23.1.1 Animal waste and by-product categorization
23.1.2 Global impact
23.1.3 Meat by-product utilization
23.1.4 Economic value
23.1.5 Commercial impact
23.1.6 Nutritional composition of meat by-products
23.1.7 Chemical composition
23.2 Value-added food ingredients
23.2.1 Spray-dried animal muscle
23.2.2 Biologically active compounds
23.2.3 Protein content
23.2.4 Fat content
23.2.5 Other uses
23.2.6 Regulation and classification
23.2.7 Tongue
23.2.8 Heart
23.2.9 Liver
23.2.10 Kidney
23.2.11 Brain
23.2.12 Meat quality attributes
23.2.13 Protein functionality and water-holding capacity
23.2.14 Muscle composition
23.2.15 Muscle structure
23.2.16 Muscle fiber types
23.2.17 Rules, regulations, and safety aspects
23.3 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
References
Further reading
24 Biowaste eggshells as efficient electrodes for energy storage
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Valorization of biowaste chicken eggshells
24.2.1 Phenomenological description of chicken eggshells
24.2.2 Eggshell and eggshell membrane
24.2.3 Repurposing the eggshell product
24.3 Applications
24.3.1 Use of eggshells for UV-protective applications
24.3.2 Use of eggshells for biomedical applications
24.3.3 Use of eggshells for industrial wastewater applications
24.3.4 Use of eggshells for biodiesel production
24.3.5 Use of eggshells for construction and building
24.3.6 Eggshell-derived nanomaterials
24.4 Eggshells as efficient electrodes for energy storage
24.4.1 General overview of hybrid supercapacitors
24.4.2 Nanostructured cathode materials for hybrid supercapacitors and the effects of the materials
24.4.3 Anode materials for hybrid supercapacitors
24.4.4 Micro-algae-derived carbon electrode for hybrid supercapacitors
24.4.5 Wheat-straw-derived carbon electrode for hybrid supercapacitors
24.4.6 Electrochemical device: battery versus capacitor
24.4.7 Eggshell-derived carbon electrode for hybrid supercapacitors in nonaqueous Li electrolyte
24.4.7.1 Electrode (eggshell) preparation
24.4.8 Eggshell-derived carbon electrode for hybrid supercapacitors in aqueous Na electrolyte
24.4.9 Biodegradable chitosan composite electrode for hybrid supercapacitors
24.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
References
25 Recovery and application of bioactive proteins from poultry by-products
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Generation and disposal of chicken industry waste
25.3 Nutritional value of poultry by-products
25.4 Bioactive proteins from poultry by-products: potential applications
25.4.1 Skin
25.4.2 Feet
25.4.3 Keel
25.4.4 Feathers
25.4.5 Blood
25.4.6 Bones
25.4.7 Head: comb, wattle, earlobe, beak
25.4.8 Mechanically deboned chicken meat
25.4.9 Abdominal fat
25.4.10 Offal
25.5 Techniques for obtaining bioactive proteins from by-products of the chicken industry: recent trends
25.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
References
26 Valorization of seafood processing by-products
26.1 Introduction
26.1.1 Terminology issues
26.2 The position of by-products in global fisheries and seafood industry
26.2.1 Fish supply chain
26.2.2 Discards from fisheries
26.2.3 By-products from the fish-processing industry
26.2.4 By-products from aquaculture
26.3 Recovery of seafood by-products
26.4 Valorization of seafood by-products
26.4.1 New food products
26.4.2 Fishmeal and fish oil
26.4.3 Fish protein recovery
26.4.3.1 Fish protein concentrate
26.4.3.2 Fish protein isolate
26.4.3.3 Fish protein hydrolysate
26.4.3.4 Fish silage
26.4.4 Bioproducts
26.4.4.1 Bioactive peptides
26.4.4.2 Collagen and gelatin
26.4.4.3 Chitin and chitosan
26.4.5 Marine enzymes
26.4.6 Natural pigments
26.4.7 Energy and agronomic uses of by-products
26.4.7.1 Biodiesel
26.4.7.2 Compost and fertilizers
26.5 Improvements in the management of seafood by-products
26.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
References
27 Utilization of seafood-processing by-products for the development of value-added food products
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Seafood-processing by-products definition and statistics
27.3 Fundamental components of seafood-processing by-products
27.3.1 Lipids
27.3.2 Proteins
27.3.2.1 Myofibrillar proteins
27.3.2.2 Sarcoplasmic protein
27.3.2.3 Stromal proteins
27.3.3 Chemical and enzymatic recovery methods of seafood-processing by-products
27.3.3.1 Chemical recovery method
27.3.3.2 Enzymatic recovery method of seafood-processing by-products
27.3.4 Isoelectric solubilization and precipitation
27.3.5 Protein hydrolysis
27.3.5.1 Chemical hydrolysis
27.3.5.2 Enzymatic hydrolysis
27.3.5.3 Fermentation hydrolysis
27.3.6 Surimi manufacturing
27.3.7 Development of value-added food products from the proteins recovered from fish-processing by-products
27.3.7.1 Seafood protein hydrolysate
27.3.7.2 Seafood protein powders
27.3.7.3 Food coating films
27.3.7.4 Injectable texturizer
27.3.7.5 Natural pigments
27.3.7.5.1 Isolation of carotenoid
27.3.7.6 Fish-based enzyme
27.3.7.7 Antifreeze agents
27.3.8 Development of value-added products from oil recovered from seafood-processing by-products
27.3.8.1 Polyunsaturated fatty acid
27.3.9 Development of value-added products from other materials recovered from seafood-processing by-products
27.3.9.1 Collagen and gelatin
27.3.9.2 Hydroxyapatite
27.4 Conclusion, opportunities, and future trends
References
28 Valorization of seafood industry waste for gelatin production: facts and gaps
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Amounts of seafood waste
28.2.1 Wastes after fish processing
28.2.2 Waste generated from other seafood
28.3 Valorization strategies for seafood waste
28.4 The importance of aquatic gelatin for academia and industry
28.4.1 A versatile industrial product: gelatin
28.4.2 Aquatic gelatin and its benefits
28.4.3 Fish gelatin derived from waste
28.5 Mind the gaps: fish gelatin from waste
28.5.1 Sustainability and sanitary issues for the raw material
28.5.2 Health-related issues
28.5.3 Sensorial attributes of aquatic gelatin
28.6 Possible solutions
28.6.1 Well-organized process for raw material through legislation
28.6.2 Solutions to health-related issues
28.6.3 Overcoming the sensorial problems of aquatic gelatin
28.7 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
References
29 Effective valorization of aquaculture by-products: bioactive peptides and their application in aquafeed
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Fish protein hydrolysates and peptides
29.3 Sources of aquaculture by-products
29.4 Handling and processing of seafood by-products for production of protein hydrolysates and peptides
29.4.1 Utilization of fish protein hydrolysates and peptides as fish feed
29.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
Acknowledgment
References
30 Sustainability of agri-food supply chains through innovative waste management models
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Food wastage as a hurdle for global security
30.3 Global food loss scenario
30.3.1 Causes of food losses
30.4 Food waste management through valorization: global efforts
30.4.1 Food waste valorization techniques
30.5 The case of an emerging economy: food loss and reduction strategies in India
30.5.1 Recent policy push as an enabler for food loss reduction
30.5.2 Constraints, actors, and enablers for reductions in food loss
30.6 Possible interventions and the way forward for food waste valorization
30.7 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
References
31 Food waste generation and management: household sector
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Food waste overview
31.2.1 Definition
31.2.1.1 Food waste
31.2.1.2 Food loss
31.2.1.3 Food wastage
31.2.2 Waste composition overview
31.2.3 Causes and sources of food waste
31.2.3.1 Consumers
31.2.3.2 Producers and operators
31.2.3.3 Sources of food waste
31.2.3.3.1 Household
31.2.3.3.2 Restaurants
31.2.3.3.3 Retail businesses
31.3 Food waste policy
31.3.1 European Union
31.3.2 Australia
31.3.3 United States
31.3.4 The Netherlands
31.3.5 Canada
31.3.6 Singapore
31.3.7 Thailand
31.4 Food waste management
31.4.1 The food waste management hierarchy
31.4.1.1 Source reduction
31.4.1.2 Feed hungry people
31.4.1.3 Feed animals
31.4.1.4 Industrial uses
31.4.1.5 Composting
31.4.2 Food waste management approaches
31.4.2.1 Landfill
31.4.2.2 Biogas
31.4.2.3 Anaerobic digestion
31.4.2.4 Composting
31.5 Food waste management incentives
31.5.1 Cobenefits from food waste reduction
31.5.2 Lessons learned on food waste management
31.5.2.1 Australia
31.5.2.2 South Korea
31.5.2.3 Taiwan
31.5.2.4 Japan
31.5.2.5 Norway
31.5.2.6 France
31.5.2.7 Dubai
31.5.2.8 IKEA
31.5.2.9 Thailand
31.5.2.10 Food Waste Management Flagship Project—a case study from Thailand
31.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
Acknowledgments
References
32 Sustainable valorization of food-processing industry by-products: challenges and opportunities to obtain bioactive comp...
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Food processing and waste production
32.2.1 Socioeconomic considerations and environmental concerns
32.2.2 What can be used as raw material for bioactive compounds recovery?
32.3 Bioactives in food waste: chemical classes and activities
32.4 Challenges in extraction: searching for green and sustainable separation of natural products from waste
32.4.1 Conventional methods
32.4.1.1 Organic solvent extraction
32.4.2 Nonconventional methods
32.4.2.1 Ultrasound-assisted extraction
32.4.2.2 Microwave-assisted extraction
32.4.2.3 Enzyme-assisted extraction
32.4.2.4 Supercritical fluid extraction
32.4.2.5 Ionic liquids
32.5 Are green extraction techniques cost-effective processes?
32.6 Opportunities for new valuable compounds
32.6.1 Applications of recovered molecules in nutraceuticals and reinvented foods
32.6.2 Garbage to glamour: incorporating recovered bioactives in skin care products
32.7 New business and marketing concepts for recovered bioactives
32.8 Nanocellulose for packaging—biomaterials production
32.9 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
References
33 Revitalization of wastewater from the edible oil industry
Abbreviations
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Sources of wastewater
33.3 Techniques for treatment of wastewater
33.4 Physiochemical treatments
33.4.1 Coagulation–flocculation
33.4.1.1 Novelties in wastewater coagulation–flocculation treatment
33.4.2 Adsorption
33.4.2.1 Novelties in wastewater adsorption treatment
33.4.3 Membrane treatment
33.4.3.1 Novelties in membrane treatment
33.4.4 Biological treatment
33.4.4.1 Aerobic digestion
33.4.4.2 Anaerobic digestion
3.4.4.3 Novelties in biological treatment of wastewater
33.4.5 Electrochemical treatment
33.4.5.1 Novelties in electrochemical treatment of wastewater
33.4.6 Advanced oxidation process treatment
33.5 Potential end products from wastewater treatments
33.5.1 Development of bioenergy resources
33.5.2 Production of volatile fatty acids
33.5.3 Development of biopolymers
33.5.4 Development of bio-agricultural products
33.5.5 Valorized bio-active compounds
33.5.6 Miscellaneous valorized products
33.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
Acknowledgment
References
34 Valorization of cotton wastes for agricultural and industrial applications: present status and future prospects
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Cotton wastes and the need for their valorization
34.3 Composition of cotton plants
34.4 Classification of cotton wastes
34.4.1 On-farm cotton wastes and their utilization
34.4.1.1 Cotton stalks
34.4.1.1.1 Compost/vermicompost
34.4.1.1.2 Compost tea
34.4.1.1.3 Biomethanation
34.4.1.1.4 Particle boards
34.4.1.1.5 Biomass energy and biochar production
34.4.1.1.6 Mushroom production
34.4.1.2 Other cotton plant parts
34.4.1.2.1 Phytochemicals and bioactive compound
34.4.1.2.2 Gossypol
34.4.2 Off-farm cotton wastes and their utilization
34.4.2.1 Ginnery wastes
34.4.2.1.1 Organic manure
34.4.2.1.2 Biomethanation
34.4.2.1.3 Fuel and energy
34.4.2.1.4 Enzyme production
34.4.2.1.5 Geotextiles
34.4.2.1.6 Composites and biopolymers
34.4.2.1.7 Livestock feed
34.4.2.1.8 Volatiles
34.4.2.1.9 Environmental applications
34.4.2.2 Cotton seed by-products
34.4.2.2.1 Whole seed cotton
34.4.2.2.2 Cottonseed coat (hulls)
34.4.2.2.3 Cotton meal (seed kernel)
34.5 A conceptual model to utilize on-farm cotton wastes
34.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
References
35 Advanced techniques for recovery of active compounds from food by-products
35.1 Introduction
35.2 Conventional extraction techniques for food waste valorization
35.2.1 Pressurized liquid extraction
35.2.2 Microwave-assisted extraction
35.2.3 Ultrasound-assisted extraction
35.3 Nonconventional extraction techniques for food waste valorization
35.3.1 Ohmic technologies
35.3.2 Natural deep eutectic solvents for extraction of bioactive compounds
35.4 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
Acknowledgments
References
36 Application of combined extraction and microextraction techniques for food waste
36.1 Introduction
36.2 Microextraction techniques
36.2.1 Solid sorbent-based microextraction
36.2.2 Solid-phase microextraction
36.2.3 Stir bar sorptive extraction
36.2.4 Liquid-phase microextraction techniques
36.2.5 Dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction
36.2.6 Microextraction with deep eutectic solvents and ionic liquids
36.2.7 Dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction-solidified floating organic droplets
36.3 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
References
37 Superabsorbent materials from industrial food and agricultural wastes and by-products
37.1 Introduction
37.2 Natural superabsorbent materials
37.2.1 Carbohydrates
37.2.1.1 Raw materials
37.2.1.1.1 Cellulose
37.2.1.1.2 Starch
37.2.1.1.3 Chitin
37.2.1.2 Processing techniques
37.2.1.2.1 Physical processing methods
37.2.1.2.2 Chemical processing methods
37.2.1.3 Limitations and applications
37.2.2 Proteins
37.2.2.1 Raw materials
37.2.2.1.1 Soy protein
37.2.2.1.2 Porcine plasma protein
37.2.2.1.3 Other proteins
37.2.2.2 Processing techniques
37.2.2.3 Limitations and applications
37.2.3 Copolymers
37.2.3.1 Carbohydrate-based copolymers
37.2.3.2 Protein-based copolymers
37.2.3.3 Limitations and applications of biodegradable polymers based on natural/synthetic blends
37.3 Biodegradability of superabsorbent materials
37.4 Strategies to improve superabsorbent properties in protein-based SAB
37.4.1 Optimization of processing parameters
37.4.2 Influence of pH
37.4.3 Influence of salt addition
37.4.4 Protein functionalization
37.4.5 Dehydrothermal treatment
37.4.6 Addition of clays
37.4.7 Addition of hydrocolloids
37.5 Benefits of natural-based superabsorbent materials
37.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
Acknowledgments
References
38 Natural deep eutectic solvents for sustainable extraction of pigments and antioxidants from agri-processing waste
Abbreviations
38.1 Introduction
38.2 Natural deep eutectic solvents
38.3 Natural pigments from agri-processing waste
38.3.1 Anthocyanins
38.3.2 Carotenoids
38.3.3 Carthamine
38.3.4 Curcumin
38.4 Other antioxidant compounds from agri-processing waste
38.4.1 Olive processing
38.4.2 Onion processing
38.4.3 Citrus processing
38.4.4 Coffee processing
38.4.5 Winemaking
38.4.6 Pomegranate processing
38.4.7 Miscellaneous
38.5 Toxicity of NADES
38.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
Acknowledgments
References
39 Thermochemical and biochemical treatment strategies for resource recovery from agri-food industry wastes
39.1 Introduction
39.2 An overview on agri-food industry waste
39.2.1 Crop residues
39.2.2 Agricultural products processing industry waste
39.2.3 Food waste
39.2.4 Composition of agri-food industry waste
39.2.5 Handling of agri-food industry waste
39.3 Thermochemical conversion of agri-food industry waste
39.3.1 Combustion
39.3.1.1 Combustion of agri-food waste for domestic applications
39.3.1.2 Combustion of agri-food waste in industrial scale applications
39.3.1.3 Combustion of agri-food waste—some case studies
39.3.2 Pyrolysis of agri-food waste
39.3.2.1 Biochar production from agri-food waste and its applications
39.3.2.2 Pyrolysis oil production from agri-food wastes
39.3.3 Gasification
39.4 Biochemical conversion of agri-food industry wastes
39.4.1 Anaerobic digestion
39.4.2 Fermentation of agri-food waste
39.4.2.1 Fermentation of crop residues
39.4.2.1.1 Straws
39.4.2.1.2 Stalks
39.4.2.2 Fermentation of agricultural products processing waste
39.4.2.2.1 Fruit peels
39.4.2.2.2 Sugarcane bagasse
39.4.2.3 Fermentation of food wastes
39.5 Challenges and opportunities
39.5.1 Thermochemical conversion processes
39.5.2 Biochemical conversion processes
39.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
Acknowledgments
References
40 Bioconversion of agri-food waste and by-products through insects: a new valorization opportunity
40.1 Introduction: the “Circular Economy” concept for agro-food waste reduction and how insects fit in it
40.2 Insect species and rearing substrates
40.2.1 Rearing substrates for Hermetia illucens
40.2.2 Rearing substrates for other insect species
40.2.3 Lignocellulosic substrates
40.2.4 Exploring the possibilities of insect rearing on unauthorized substrates
40.3 Insect processing
40.3.1 Killing
40.3.2 Drying
40.3.3 Grinding
40.3.4 Extraction of valuable compounds from insect biomass
40.3.4.1 Lipid extraction
40.3.4.2 Protein extraction
40.3.4.3 Chitin extraction
40.3.4.4 Fermentation
40.3.4.5 Future research needs in insect processing
40.4 Insect applications
40.4.1 Feed and food
40.4.2 Other applications
40.4.2.1 Biodiesel
40.4.2.2 Fertilizer
40.4.2.3 Bioplastic
40.4.2.4 Pharmaceutic and cosmetic
40.5 Legal barriers to insects as biotools in circular economy in European Union
40.6 Conclusion and future perspectives
References
41 Sustainability of food industry wastes: a microbial approach
41.1 Introduction
41.1.1 Wineries
41.1.2 Olive oil mills
41.2 Types of residual biomass generated
41.2.1 Winery industry
41.2.1.1 Grape leaves
41.2.1.2 Grape stems
41.2.1.3 Grape pomace or press residues
41.2.1.4 Wine lees
41.2.1.5 Winery wastewater
41.2.2 Olive oil industry
41.2.2.1 Pruning biomass
41.2.2.2 Olive pomace
41.2.2.3 Olive mill wastewater
41.3 Microbial valorization of wastes
41.3.1 Biorefinery
41.3.1.1 Ethanol production
41.3.1.2 Hydrogen
41.3.1.3 Methane
41.3.1.4 Bioelectricity
41.3.1.5 Single cell oil production
41.3.2 Composting
41.3.3 Industrial additives and ingredients
41.3.3.1 Xylitol
41.3.3.2 Organic acids
41.3.3.3 Enzyme production
41.3.3.4 Additives
41.3.4 Microbial biomass
41.3.5 Other uses
41.4 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
References
42 Polyphenols from food processing byproducts and their microbiota–gut–brain axis-based health benefits
42.1 Introduction
42.2 Sources of byproduct polyphenols from food industries
42.2.1 Food industries byproduct polyphenols
42.2.2 Fruit byproducts
42.2.2.1 Apples
42.2.2.2 Bananas
42.2.2.3 Berries
42.2.2.4 Citrus fruits
42.2.2.5 Mangoes
42.2.2.6 Exotic fruits
42.2.2.7 Avocados, dragon fruits, and date seeds
42.2.3 Vegetable byproducts
42.2.3.1 Potato
42.2.3.2 Beetroot
42.2.3.3 Broccoli
42.2.3.4 Cauliflower
42.2.3.5 Onion, carrot, tomato, cabbage
42.2.3.6 Oil industry byproducts
42.2.4 Cereals and pulses byproduct
42.3 Structure and class of byproduct polyphenols
42.4 Extraction of polyphenols from food processing and agricultural byproducts
42.4.1 Conventional solvent extraction
42.4.2 Microwave-assisted extraction
42.4.3 Ultrasound-assisted extraction
42.4.4 Deep eutectic solvent extraction
42.4.5 Supercritical fluid extraction
42.4.6 Pressurized fluid extraction
42.4.7 Enzyme-assisted extraction
42.5 Applications of byproducts’ polyphenols
42.6 Gut fermentation of polyphenols and their health benefits
42.6.1 Era of gut–brain axis
42.6.2 Biotransformation of dietary polyphenols by gut microbiome
42.6.3 Health benefits of dietary polyphenols and its metabolites
42.7 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
References
43 Agro-waste-derived silica nanoparticles (Si-NPs) as biofertilizer
43.1 Introduction
43.1.1 Agri-food wastes
43.1.2 Silicon in plants
43.1.3 The current trend of silicon in agriculture
43.2 Natural sources, extraction methods, and physicochemical properties
43.3 Rice husk-derived SiO2 nanoparticles
43.4 Characterizations of silica nanoparticles
43.5 Advantages and applications of silica nanoparticles in agriculture
43.6 Fertilizers
43.7 Delivery vectors
43.8 Soil water retention capacity
43.9 Remediation of heavy metals and hazardous chemicals
43.10 Weeds, pests, and pathogens management
43.11 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
Acknowledgments
References
44 Supply of biomass and agricultural waste for promoting low-carbon business-ecosystem
44.1 Introduction
44.2 The concept of circular economy
44.3 Sustainable supply chain and reverse logistics
44.3.1 Biomass as a source of energy and fuel
44.3.1.1 Conversion of biomass to liquid or gas fuel
44.4 Entrepreneurial ecosystems in rural areas
44.5 A case study: promoting low-carbon business ecosystem in a rural district
44.5.1 The current stage of circular economy in Nivala district
44.5.1.1 The production of district heating
44.5.1.2 Examples of companies in Nivala industrial park
44.5.1.3 Farming and production of biogas
44.5.2 The future vision of carbon-free ecosystem in Nivala
44.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
References
45 Agricultural waste valorization for sustainable biofuel production
45.1 Introduction
45.2 Production of biofuels from lignocellulosic waste
45.2.1 Pretreatment of lignocellulosic waste
45.2.1.1 Physical pretreatment
45.2.1.2 Chemical pretreatment
45.2.1.3 Biological pretreatment
45.2.2 Biological processes to produce fuel
45.2.2.1 Waste biomass pretreatment
45.2.2.2 Hydrolysis and fermentation
45.2.2.3 Product separation
45.2.2.4 Bioethanol, biobutanol, and acetone–butanol–ethanol mixture
45.2.3 Thermal processes to produce fuel
45.2.3.1 Biooil production by pyrolysis
45.2.3.1.1 Waste pretreatment for pyrolysis
45.2.3.1.2 Pyrolysis of pretreated biomass
45.2.3.2 Biooil production by liquefaction
45.2.3.3 Biooil upgrading
45.2.3.4 Integrated processes for biooil production and upgrading
45.3 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
References
46 Valorization of fruit processing by-product streams into integrated biorefinery concepts: extraction of value-added comp...
46.1 Introduction
46.2 Organic acids production
46.2.1 Citric acid
46.2.2 Lactic acid
46.2.3 Succinic acid
46.2.4 Acetic acid
46.2.5 Fumaric acid
46.2.6 Other organic acids
46.3 Enzymes
46.4 Biopolymers
46.4.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates production utilizing fruit waste streams
46.4.2 Bioconversion of fruit waste to bacterial cellulose
46.5 Recovery of antioxidants and essential oils from fruits
46.5.1 Recovery of antioxidants compounds
46.5.2 Recovery of essential oils
46.6 Conclusion and future outlook
References
47 Recovery and valorization of CO2 from the organic wastes fermentation
47.1 Introduction
47.2 Overview of organic wastes production
47.2.1 Agriculture wastes
47.2.2 Animal wastes
47.2.3 Food processing wastes
47.2.4 Food wastes
47.2.5 Paper and cellulose production wastes
47.2.6 Urban sewage sludge
47.3 Organic wastes reuse technologies: ethanol and biogas production
47.3.1 Ethanol
47.3.2 Biogas and biohydrogen
47.4 CO2 valorization technologies
47.4.1 Chemical fixation
47.4.2 Biological fixation
47.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
References
48 Valorization of agrifood wastes and byproducts through nanobiotechnology
48.1 Introduction
48.2 Agrifood wastes: international status
48.2.1 Types of agrifood wastes and compositions
48.2.2 Conventional valorization processes
48.2.2.1 Agrobased applications
48.2.2.2 Application of agrifood waste for biofuels
48.2.2.3 Applications of agrifood wastes in food and feed
48.3 Bottleneck in conventional processes of agrifood waste valorization
48.4 Valorization process by nanobiotechnology
48.4.1 Carbon-based nanomaterials
48.4.2 Noncarbon-based nanomaterials
48.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges
Acknowledgment
References
Index
