Utilization of Waste Biomass in Energy, Environment and Catalysis

Cover
Half Title
Series Information
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Editors
Contributors
1 Agricultural Waste Biomass Utilization as a Bio-Adsorbent: Activated Carbon for Dye Removal
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Dye
1.3 Agricultural Waste Biomass Sources
1.3.1 Peanut Shell
1.3.2 Bagasse
1.3.3 Peat
1.3.4 Rice Husk
1.3.5 Coconut Shell
1.3.6 Activated Carbon
1.3.7 Preparation of AC
1.4 Adsorption Model
1.5 Process Parameters, Decolorization and COD Reduction
1.6 Adsorption Surface Characterization Technique
1.6.1 X-Ray Spectroscopy (SEM/TEM)
1.7 Conclusions
References
2 Agricultural Waste Biomass Utilization in Waste Water Treatment
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Water Quality
2.3 Natural Processes Affecting Water Quality
2.3.1 Distance From Oceans
2.3.2 Climate and Vegetation
2.3.3 Rock Composition (Lithology)
2.3.4 Terrestrial Vegetation
2.3.5 Aquatic Vegetation
2.4 Water Pollution
2.5. Major Sources of Water Pollution
2.5.1 Urbanization
2.5.2 Sewerage and Other OD Wastes
2.5.3 Industrial Effluent and Wastes
2.5.4 Agro-Chemical Wastes
2.5.5 Nutrient Enrichment
2.5.6 Thermal Pollution
2.5.7 Oil Spillage
2.5.8 Disruption of Sediments
2.5.9 Acid Rain Pollution
2.5.10 Radioactive Waste
2.5.11 Climate Change
2.6 Categories of Water Pollutants
2.6.1 Organic and Biotic Pollutants
2.6.2 Inorganic Or Abiotic Pollutants
2.6.3 Radiogenic Pollutants
2.6.4 Suspended Material (Dissolved Solids)
2.6.5 Pathogenic Organisms
2.6.6 Nutrients and Agricultural Pollutants
2.6.7 Thermal Pollution
2.7 Control Measures for Water Pollution
2.8 Effects of Water Pollution
2.9 Role of Agricultural Waste Biomass in Treatments of Polluted Water
2.10 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
3 Phytochemical Extraction From Waste Biomass
3.1 Phytochemical Sources
3.2 Classification
3.2.1 Terpenoids
3.2.1.1 Monoterpenoids
3.2.1.2 Diterpenoids
3.2.1.3 Triterpenoids
3.2.1.4 Sesquiterpenoids
3.2.1.5 Carotenoids
3.2.1.6 Xanthophylls
3.2.2 Polyphenols
3.2.2.1 Phenolic Acids
3.2.2.2 Flavonoids
3.2.2.3 Anthocyanins
3.2.2.4 Coumarins
3.2.2.5 Xanthones
3.2.2.6 Stillbenoids
3.2.2.7 Lignans
3.2.3 Alkaloids
3.2.3.1 Indole Alkaloids
3.2.3.2 Isoquinoline Alkaloids
3.2.3.3 Steroidal Alkaloids
3.2.3.4 Tropane Alkaloids
3.2.3.5 Pyridine Alkaloids
3.2.3.6 Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids
3.2.4 Capsaicinoids
3.2.5 Betalains
3.2.5.1 Betacyanin
3.2.5.2 Betaxanthin
3.2.6 Allium Compounds
3.3 Different Types of Extraction Techniques
3.3.1 Conventional Extraction
3.3.1.1 Soxhlet Extraction
3.3.1.2 Maceration
3.3.1.3 Hydrodistillation
3.3.1.4 Percolation
3.3.1.5 Decoction
3.3.1.6 Reflux Extraction
3.3.2 Non-Conventional Techniques
3.3.2.1 Microwave Assisted Extraction
3.3.2.2 Ultrasound Assisted Extraction
3.3.2.3 Pulse Electric Field Extraction
3.3.2.4 Supercritical Fluid Extraction
3.3.2.5 Pressurized Liquid Extraction
3.3.2.6 High Voltage Electrical Discharge Extraction
3.3.2.7 High Pressure Processing Base Extraction
3.4 Phytochemical Extraction From Different Sources
3.5 Isolation, Purification and Characterization of Phytochemicals From Plant Biomass
3.5.1 Phytochemical Purification From Extract
3.5.2 Structural Elucidation of Phytochemicals
3.5.3 UV-Visible Spectroscopy for Phytochemical Identification
3.5.4 Infrared Spectroscopy of Phytochemicals
3.5.5 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
3.5.6 Mass Spectroscopy of Phytochemicals
3.6 Conclusion
References
4 Biomass (Agricultural Waste) as Sustainable Reinforcement in Polymer Composite
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Natural Fibres
4.2.1 Properties and Characteristics of Natural (Plant) Fibres
4.3 Natural Fibre-Polymer Composite
4.4 Challenges
4.4.1 Interface
4.4.2 Water Absorption
4.4.3 Chemical Modification
4.4.3.1 Physical Treatment
4.4.3.2 Chemical Treatment
4.5 Processing Techniques
4.6 Pros and Cons of Natural Fibres Compared to Conventional Fibres
4.7 Applications
4.8 Recent Developments and Future Trends
4.9 Summary
References
5 Biomass Accretion and Control Strategies in Gas Biofiltration
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Microbial Species in Biofilters
5.2.1 Selection and Proliferation
5.2.2 Inoculation of Biofilters
5.3 Substrate Utilization
5.3.1 Induction
5.3.2 Substrate Interaction
5.3.3 Acclimation
5.3.4 Uptake of Dissolved Compounds
5.3.5 Phagocytosis
5.3.6 Exoenzymes
5.3.7 Aerobic and Anaerobic Metabolism
5.3.8 Toxicity
5.4 The Microbial Community
5.4.1 Longitudinal Stratification
5.4.2 Biofilms in Biofilters
5.4.3 Higher Organisms in Biofilters
5.5 Biomass Clogging
5.6 Conclusions
References
6 Enzymatic Biodiesel Production From Biomass
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Biodiesel
6.2.1 Physical Properties
6.2.2 Chemical Properties
6.2.3 Biodiesel Standards
6.3 Biodiesel Production Processes
6.3.1 Direct Use Blending
6.3.2 Microemulsion Process
6.3.3 Thermal Cracking (Pyrolysis)
6.3.4 Reactive Distillation Process
6.3.5 Dual Reactive Distillation
6.3.6 Membrane Technology
6.3.7 The Transesterification Process
6.3.7.1 The Transesterification Process Using Alkali Catalyst
6.3.7.2 The Transesterification Process Using Acid Catalyst
6.3.7.3 Two-Step Transesterification Process
6.3.8 Transesterification Through Enzymatic Technology
6.3.8.1 Extracellular Lipase
6.3.8.2 Intracellular Lipase
6.3.8.3 Substrate
6.3.8.4 Acyl Acceptor
6.3.8.5 Bio-Reactor Design
6.4 Effect of Solvents On the Production of Biodiesel
6.5 Merits of Biodiesel
6.6 De-Merits of Biodiesel
6.7 Conclusion
References
7 Catalytic Cracking of Jatropha Curcas Non-Edible Oil to Hydrocarbons of Gasoline Fraction: Optimization Studies Through …
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Literature Review
7.2.1 Jatropha Curcas
7.2.2 Catalysts
7.2.3 Catalytic Cracking
7.2.4 Biofuels
7.3 Materials and Methods
7.3.1 Materials and Characterization
7.3.2 Experimental Set-Up and Methodology
7.3.3 Mathematical Model and Design of Experiments
7.3.4 Product Characterization
7.4 Results and Discussions
7.4.1 Catalyst Characterization
7.4.2 Statistical Analysis for Gas, Liquid and Gasoline Fraction Hydrocarbons
7.4.3 Response Surface Plots
7.4.4 ANOVA Analysis
7.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgement
References
8 Production of Hydrogen From Waste Biomass
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Biomass
8.3 Biomass Feedstocks
8.4 Biomass-Based Hydrogen Processing Methods
8.4.1 Thermochemical Methods
8.4.1.1 Biomass Pyrolysis
8.4.1.2 Biomass Gasification
8.4.2 Biological Methods
8.4.2.1 Direct Biophotolysis
8.4.2.2 Indirect Biophotolysis
8.4.2.3 Biological Water–Gas Shift (BWGS) Reaction
8.4.2.4 Photo Fermentation
8.4.2.5 Dark Fermentation
8.5 Separation of Hydrogen Produced
8.6 Summary
References
9 Microbial Mediated Waste Management and Bioenergy Production
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Microbial Mediated Biomass Production
9.1.2 Micro-Algae Biomass
9.2 Contributions of Microbes in Waste Management
9.2.1 Microbes in Organic Waste Management
9.2.2 Microbes in Inorganic Waste Management
9.2.2.1 Mechanisms in Microbial Mediated Waste Management
9.3 Microbial Mediated Bioenergy Production
9.4 Contributions of Microbes to Waste Management and Bioenergy Production
9.4.1 Role of Bacteria in Bioenergy Production
9.4.2 Role of Fungus in Bioenergy Production
9.4.3 Role of Algae in Bioenergy Production
9.5 Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC)
9.6 Conclusion
References
10 Use of Waste Biomass as Remediator for Environmental Pollution
10.1 Introduction
10.2 A Brief Introduction of Waste Biomass
10.3 Role of Biomass in Environmental Pollution
10.3.1 Air
10.3.2 Water
10.3.3 Soil
10.4 Overall Impact On Human Health
10.5 Scope for Utilization of Biomass
10.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
11 Recent Trends in Biomass Conservation and Management
11.1 Statement of Problem and Objectives
11.2 Biomass Potentials and Usage
11.3 Electricity, Ethanol, and Hydrogen From Biomass
11.4 Biomass, Energy, and Stakeholders in India
11.5 Major Problems in Biomass Conservation and Management
11.6 Recent Trends in Biomass Conservation
11.6.1 Thermal Energy and Thermal Power
11.6.2 Biogas
11.6.3 Pellet and Briquette Manufacturing
11.7 Biomass Supply Chain Management
11.8 Summary
11.9 Conclusions
References
12 Revalorization of Waste Biomass for Preparing Biodegradable Composite Materials
12.1 Introduction
12.1.1 Plastic Waste
12.1.2 Lignocellulosic Fibres
12.1.3 Cellulose, Microcrystalline Cellulose, and Nanocellulose
12.2 Pretreatments/Surface Modifications of Lignocellulosic Fibres
12.2.1 Alkali Treatment
12.2.2 Acetylation Treatment
12.2.3 Silane Treatment
12.2.4 Maleic Anhydride Grafting
12.3 Biodegradable Polymers Used for Composite Preparation
12.3.1 Polylactic Acid
12.3.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
12.3.3 Polybutylene Succinate
12.3.4 Starch-Based Thermoplastics
12.3.5 Polyvinyl Alcohol
12.4 PVA Composite Films Reinforced With Lignocellulosic Fibres
12.5 PVA-Starch Composite Films Reinforced With Lignocellulosic Fibres
12.6 Nanocellulose From Agricultural Waste and Effect of Its Reinforcement in PVA Composite Films
12.6.1 Methods of Extraction of Nanocellulose From Microcrystalline Cellulose
12.6.2 Nanocellulose Reinforced PVA Composite Films
12.7 Conclusion
References
13 Biomass of Microalgae as Potential Biodiesel Source for Future Energy Needs
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Benefits of Biodiesel
13.3 Microalgae
13.4 Productivity of Microalgae
13.5 Algae Cultivation
13.5.1 Algal Cultivation in the Open Pond
13.5.1.1 Photo-Bioreactors (PBRs)
13.5.1.2 Vertical-Column PBRs
13.5.2 Hydrodynamics and Mass Transfer in PBRs
13.5.3 Productivity of Algae in Outdoor PBRs
13.5.4 PBRs With Mixotrophic Mode of Microalgae Cultivation
13.6 Microalgae Harvesting
13.7 Oil Yield of Microalgae
13.8 Biodiesel Production
13.8.1 Extraction of Lipid
13.8.2 Transesterification of the Lipid
13.9 Production Methods
13.9.1 Batch Process
13.9.2 Supercritical Process
13.9.3 Ultra- and High-Shear In-Line and Batch Reactors
13.9.4 Ultrasonic-Reactor Method
13.9.5 Microwave Method
13.9.6 Lipase-Catalyzed Method
13.10 Major Challenges in Algal Fuel Production
13.11 Conclusion
References
14 Waste Biomass Pretreatment Using Novel Materials
14.1 Background
14.2 Potential of Waste Biomass
14.3 Structure of Biomass
14.3.1 Cellulose
14.3.2 Hemicellulose
14.3.3 Lignin
14.4 Biomass Pretreatment
14.4.1 Water Treatments
14.4.1.1 Temperature Between 150°C and 225°C
14.4.1.2 Temperature Between 225°C and 350°C Range
14.4.1.3 Temperature Between the 350°C to 400°C Range
14.4.2 Chemical Pretreatments
14.4.2.1 Acid Pretreatment
14.4.2.2 Alkaline Hydrolysis
14.4.2.3 Solvent Extraction/Organosolv
14.4.2.4 Oxidation
14.4.2.5 Ionic Liquids
14.4.3 Physicochemical Pretreatments
14.4.3.1 Explosion/Autohydrolysis
14.4.3.2 Ammonia Pretreatment
14.4.3.3 Supercritical Fluid Pretreatment
14.4.4 Biological Pretreatments
14.4.4.1 White-Rot Fungi
14.4.4.2 Brown-Rot Fungi
14.4.4.3 Soft-Rot Fungi
14.4.5 Combined Pretreatments
14.4.5.1 Oxidative Lime Pretreatment
14.4.5.2 Supercritical CO₂ With Steam Explosion
14.4.5.3 Dilute Acid Pre-Soaking Before Organosolv
14.4.5.4 Alkaline Peroxide Treatment Coupled With Steam Explosion
14.4.5.5 Additional Combined Pretreatment Techniques
14.5 Conclusions
Contribution
References
15 Corporate Social Accountability in Waste Production and Management
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Waste Generation and Management
15.2.1 The Extractive Industry and Waste
15.2.2 The Throwaway Society and the Accumulation of Waste
15.2.3 Waste Management
15.2.4 Plastic
15.2.5 E-Waste
15.2.6 Recycling
15.3 Corporate Responsibility and Sustainable Development
15.3.1 Recycling and the Role of Corporations
15.3.2 Corporate Responsibility and Irresponsibility
15.3.3 Companies and Profit-Seeking Events
15.4 The Excess Production and Exchange Value of the Product Leading to Waste
15.4.1 Excess Production
15.4.2 Use Value and the Exchange Value of the New Economy
15.5 The Concept of Circular Economy and Waste
15.5.1 Zero Waste Circular Economy—Contradictions
15.5.2 Green Economy and Greenwashing
15.5.3 Apple IPhone and Waste
15.6 The Waste Generation and Management—Requirement of a Comprehensive Method
15.7 Concluding Remarks
References
Index