Underwater Acoustic Modeling and Simulation

Cover......Page 1
Half Title......Page 2
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Dedication......Page 6
Contents......Page 8
Preface......Page 16
Preface to the Fourth Edition......Page 20
Preface to the Third Edition......Page 22
Preface to the Second Edition......Page 24
Preface to the First Edition......Page 26
Acknowledgments......Page 28
Author......Page 30
1.1.1 Setting......Page 32
1.1.2 Framework......Page 33
1.2 Measurements and Prediction......Page 35
1.3 Developments in Modeling......Page 39
1.4 Advances in Simulation......Page 42
1.5 Operational Challenges......Page 43
1.5.1 Naval Operations......Page 44
1.5.2 Offshore Industries......Page 46
1.5.3 Operational Oceanography......Page 47
1.6 Inverse Acoustic Sensing of the Oceans......Page 48
1.7 Standard Definitions......Page 50
1.8 Historical Growth Curves......Page 52
2.2 Physical and Chemical Properties......Page 54
2.2.2 Salinity Distribution......Page 56
2.2.3 Water Masses......Page 58
2.3.1 Calculation and Measurements......Page 60
2.3.2 Sound Speed Distribution......Page 63
2.4.1 Sea Surface......Page 69
2.4.2 Ice Cover......Page 72
2.4.3 Sea Floor......Page 73
2.5.1 Large-Scale Features......Page 77
2.5.2.1 Fronts and Eddies......Page 78
2.5.2.2 Internal Waves......Page 86
2.5.3.1 Thermohaline Staircases......Page 88
2.5.3.2 Langmuir Circulation......Page 90
2.6 Biologics......Page 91
3.1 Background......Page 94
3.2 Nature of Measurements......Page 95
3.3 Basic Concepts......Page 96
3.4.1 Forward Scattering and Reflection Loss......Page 102
3.4.2 Image Interference and Frequency Effects......Page 104
3.4.3.2 Coastal Ocean......Page 106
3.4.4 Ice Interaction......Page 108
3.5 Sea-Floor Boundary......Page 110
3.5.1.1 Acoustic Interaction with the Sea Floor......Page 111
3.5.1.2 Boundary Conditions and Modeling......Page 112
3.5.1.3 Geoacoustic Models......Page 113
3.5.2 Interference and Frequency Effects......Page 117
3.5.3 Attenuation by Sediments......Page 118
3.6 Attenuation and Absorption in Sea Water......Page 119
3.7.1 Mixed-Layer Distribution......Page 122
3.7.2 General Propagation Features......Page 126
3.7.3 Low-Frequency Cutoff......Page 130
3.8 Deep Sound Channel......Page 131
3.9 Convergence Zones......Page 133
3.11 Shallow-Water Ducts......Page 134
3.12 Arctic Half-Channel......Page 135
3.13 Coherence......Page 137
4.1 Background......Page 140
4.2.1 Wave Equation......Page 141
4.2.2 Classification of Modeling Techniques......Page 143
4.3.1 Basic Theory......Page 144
4.3.2 Caustics......Page 146
4.3.3 Gaussian Beam Tracing......Page 147
4.3.4 Range Dependence......Page 148
4.3.5 Arrival Structure......Page 150
4.3.6 Beam Displacement......Page 153
4.3.7 Waveguide Invariant......Page 154
4.3.8 Energy-Flux Models......Page 156
4.3.9 Advanced Algorithms......Page 157
4.4.2 Normal-Mode Solution......Page 159
4.4.4 Experimental Measurements......Page 162
4.4.5 Range Dependence......Page 163
4.4.7 Wedge Modes......Page 166
4.5 Multipath Expansion Models......Page 167
4.6 Fast-Field Models......Page 168
4.7.1 Basic Theory......Page 170
4.7.2 Numerical Techniques......Page 173
4.7.3 Wide-Angle and 3D Adaptations......Page 175
4.7.5 High-Frequency Adaptations......Page 177
4.8 Raymode Model—A Specific Example......Page 178
4.9 Numerical Model Summaries......Page 185
5.2.1 Ray-Theory Models......Page 208
5.2.2 Wave-Theory Models......Page 210
5.2.3 Oceanographic Mixed-Layer Models......Page 212
5.3.1 Shallow-Water Propagation Characteristics......Page 214
5.3.2 Optimum Frequency of Propagation......Page 216
5.3.3 Numerical Models......Page 218
5.3.3.1 Upslope Propagation......Page 223
5.3.3.2 Downslope Propagation......Page 224
5.3.4.1 Rogers Model......Page 225
5.3.4.2 Marsh-Schulkin Model......Page 227
5.3.5.3 Littoral Acoustic Demonstration Center......Page 230
5.4.1 Arctic Environmental Models......Page 231
5.4.2 Arctic Propagation Models......Page 232
5.4.3 Numerical Models......Page 233
5.4.4.2 Buck Model......Page 235
5.5 Data Support Requirements......Page 237
5.5.1 Sound-Speed Profile Synthesis......Page 239
5.5.1.2 Curvilinear or Continuous Gradient......Page 240
5.5.2 Earth Curvature Corrections......Page 241
5.6 Cellular Automata......Page 242
6.1 Background......Page 244
6.2 Stochastic Modeling......Page 245
6.3 Broadband Modeling......Page 246
6.4 Matched Field Processing......Page 248
6.6 Nonlinear Acoustics and Chaos......Page 251
6.7 Three-Dimensional Modeling......Page 253
6.8.1 Fronts and Eddies......Page 256
6.8.2 Internal Waves......Page 258
6.9 Coupled Ocean-Acoustic Modeling......Page 262
6.10 Acoustic Tomography......Page 263
6.11 Phase Conjugation and Time-Reversal Mirrors......Page 268
6.12 Deductive Geoacoustic Inversion......Page 270
6.12.1 Navigating Parameter Landscapes......Page 273
6.13 Prediction Uncertainties in Complex Environments......Page 274
6.14 Rapid Environmental Assessments......Page 275
6.15.1.1 Channel Structure......Page 276
6.15.1.2 Network Structure......Page 277
6.15.1.3 Channel Emulators and Network Simulators......Page 278
6.15.1.4 Network Performance and Optimization......Page 282
6.15.1.5 Underwater Communications......Page 284
6.15.1.6 Medium Access Control......Page 287
6.15.2.1 Range-Based Schemes......Page 288
6.15.3 Vehicles......Page 290
6.16 Marine Mammal Protection......Page 292
6.16.1 Regulatory Initiatives and Measurement Programs......Page 293
6.16.2.1 Increased Shipping Levels......Page 296
6.16.2.2 Ocean Acidification......Page 298
6.16.2.3 Marine-Hydrokinetic Energy Devices......Page 300
6.16.2.4 Wind-Turbine Noise......Page 301
6.16.2.5 Pile-Driving Noise......Page 302
6.16.2.6 Wave-Energy Device Noise......Page 304
6.16.2.7 Tidal-Turbine Noise......Page 305
6.16.2.8 Noise-Reduction Methods......Page 306
6.16.3 Seismic Operations and Protection of Whales......Page 308
6.16.4.1 Acoustic Integration Model......Page 312
6.16.4.2 Effects of Sound on the Marine Environment......Page 313
6.16.4.3 Marine Mammal Movement Models......Page 314
6.16.5.1 Environmentally Adaptive Sonars......Page 315
6.17 Through-the-Sensor Parameter Estimation......Page 316
6.19 Seismic Oceanography......Page 317
7.2 Noise Sources and Spectra......Page 322
7.2.1 Seismo-Acoustic Noise......Page 324
7.2.2 Shipping Noise......Page 325
7.2.3 Bioacoustic Noise......Page 328
7.2.4 Wind and Rain Noise......Page 329
7.3 Depth Dependence......Page 332
7.4 Directionality......Page 334
7.5 Surf Noise......Page 335
7.6 Arctic Ambient Noise......Page 336
7.7 Acoustic Daylight......Page 338
7.8 Geoacoustic Inversion......Page 339
7.9 Acoustic Rain Gauges......Page 340
8.2 Theoretical Basis for Noise Modeling......Page 342
8.3 Ambient-Noise Models......Page 344
8.4.2 Noise Sources and Spectra......Page 347
8.4.3 Directionality......Page 348
8.4.4 Recent Developments......Page 349
8.5 The Noise Notch......Page 350
8.6 Beam-Noise Statistics Models......Page 353
8.7 Data Support Requirements......Page 354
8.8 Numerical Model Summaries......Page 356
9.1 Background......Page 364
9.2 Volume Reverberation......Page 365
9.2.1 Deep Scattering Layer......Page 366
9.2.2 Column or Integrated Scattering Strength......Page 367
9.2.3 Vertical-Scattering Plumes......Page 368
9.3.1 Sea-Surface Reverberation......Page 369
9.3.2 Under-Ice Reverberation......Page 373
9.3.3 Sea-Floor Reverberation......Page 374
9.4 Inversion Techniques......Page 378
10.2.1 Basic Approaches......Page 382
10.2.2 Advanced Developments......Page 384
10.3.1 Volume-Reverberation Theory......Page 388
10.4 REVMOD Model—A Specific Example......Page 390
10.5.1 Computational Considerations......Page 395
10.5.2 Bistatic Acoustic Model—A Specific Example......Page 397
10.6.2 Under-Ice Reverberation Simulation Model—A Specific Example......Page 399
10.7 Numerical Model Summaries......Page 400
11.1 Background......Page 406
11.2.1 Monostatic Sonars......Page 407
11.2.2 Bistatic Sonars......Page 410
11.2.3 Multistatic Sonars......Page 412
11.3.1 Propagation......Page 413
11.3.2 Reverberation......Page 416
11.3.5 Signal-to-Noise Ratio......Page 418
11.3.6 Probability of Detection......Page 419
11.3.7 Model Outputs......Page 420
11.4 Model Operating Systems......Page 423
11.4.1 System Architecture......Page 424
11.4.2 Sonar Modeling Functions......Page 425
11.4.4 Generic Sonar Model—A Specific Example......Page 428
11.4.5 Comprehensive Acoustic System Simulation—A Specific Example......Page 429
11.5.2 Adjoint Methods......Page 430
11.5.4 Pulse Propagation......Page 432
11.5.6 Clutter Environments......Page 433
11.5.7.1 Replica Vectors......Page 434
11.5.7.2 Ray Clusters......Page 435
11.6 Data Sources and Availability......Page 436
11.7 Numerical Model Summaries......Page 442
12.1 Background......Page 452
12.2 Past Evaluation Efforts......Page 453
12.3 Analytical Benchmark Solutions......Page 455
12.4 Quantitative Accuracy Assessments......Page 458
12.5 POSSM Experience—A Specific Example......Page 462
12.6.1 Documentation......Page 465
12.6.3 Validity......Page 466
12.7 Documentation Standards......Page 467
13.1 Background......Page 472
13.2.1 Engineering......Page 473
13.2.2 Engagement......Page 474
13.3 Simulation Infrastructure......Page 475
13.5 Testbeds......Page 477
13.6 Applications......Page 479
13.6.1 Systems Engineering......Page 480
13.6.2 Simulation-Based Acquisition......Page 481
13.6.3 Operations Analysis......Page 484
13.6.4 Training......Page 485
References......Page 488
Appendix A: Abbreviations and Acronyms......Page 564
Appendix B: Glossary of Terms......Page 588
Appendix C: Websites......Page 596
Appendix D: Problem Sets......Page 600
Author Index......Page 608
Subject Index......Page 628