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Understanding Position Sensors

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As the definitive resource on position sensing technology, Understanding Position Sensors encompasses all aspects necessary for a full understanding of the field, with topics of background, operational theory, design, and application.

While grasping the theory of technologies used in the measurement of linear and angular/rotary position sensors, the reader will also learn about terminology, interfacing, testing, and other valuable concepts that are useful in the understanding of sensors in general.

The first three chapters provide readers with the necessary background information on sensors. These chapters review the working definitions and conventions used in sensing technology; specification of position sensors and the effect on performance; and sensor output types, plus an extensive section covering communication protocols. The remaining chapters describe each separate sensor technology in detail. These include resistive sensors, cable extension transducers, capacitive sensors, inductive sensors, LVDT and RVDT sensors, distributed impedance sensors, Hall effect sensors, magnetoresistive sensors, magnetostrictive sensors, linear and rotary encoders, optical triangulation position sensors, and ultrasonic position sensors.

    • Presents sensor specification, theory of operation, sensor design, and application criteria

    • Reviews the background history of position sensors as well as the underlying engineering techniques

    • Includes end-of-chapter exercises

    Understanding Position Sensors is written for electrical, mechanical, and material engineers, as well as for engineering students who are interested in understanding sensor technologies, and can be used as a textbook for an engineering course on sensor technology.

    Author(s): David S. Nyce
    Publisher: CRC Press
    Year: 2023

    Language: English
    Pages: 431
    City: Boca Raton

    Cover
    Half Title
    Title
    Copyright
    Dedication
    Contents
    About the Author
    Preface
    Trademarks
    About the Support Material
    Chapter 1 Sensor Definitions and Conventions
    1.1 Is It a Sensor or a Transducer?
    1.2 Position versus Displacement
    1.3 Absolute or Incremental Reading
    1.4 Contact or Contactless Sensing and Actuation
    1.5 Linear/Angular Configuration
    1.6 Position, Velocity, Acceleration
    1.7 Application versus Sensor Technology
    1.8 Operational Lifetime
    1.9 Questions for Review
    References
    Chapter 2 Specifications
    2.1 About Position Sensor Specifications
    2.2 Measuring Range
    2.3 Zero, Span, and Full Scale
    2.4 Repeatability
    2.5 Nonlinearity
    2.5.1 Best Straight Line Nonlinearity
    2.5.2 Zero-Based Nonlinearity
    2.5.3 End-Point Nonlinearity
    2.5.4 Least-Squares Straight-Line Nonlinearity
    2.6 Hysteresis
    2.7 Calibrated Accuracy
    2.8 Drift
    2.9 What Does All This Accuracy Stuff Mean to Me?
    2.10 Temperature Effects
    2.11 Response Time
    2.12 Damping
    2.13 Cross Sensitivity
    2.14 Shock and Vibration
    2.15 Electromagnetic Compatibility
    2.16 High Voltage Pulse Protection
    2.16.1 EFT Immunity
    2.16.2 Surge Immunity
    2.17 Power Requirements
    2.18 Intrinsic Safety, Explosion Proofing, and Purging
    2.18.1 An Inerting System
    2.18.2 Intrinsic Safety
    2.18.3 Explosion Proof
    2.18.4 Purging
    2.19 Reliability
    2.20 Questions for Review
    Chapter 3 Sensor Outputs and Communication Protocols
    3.1 Analog Output Types
    3.2 Digital Output Types
    3.3 SSI
    3.3.1 Introduction
    3.3.2 SSI Hardware Configuration
    3.3.3 SSI Data Configuration
    3.3.4 SSI Data Sequence
    3.3.5 Optocoupler
    3.3.6 Other Considerations Regarding SSI
    3.4 CANbus
    3.4.1 Introduction
    3.4.2 The Basic CANbus
    3.4.3 CANopen and DeviceNet
    3.4.4 DeviceNet vs. CANopen
    3.4.5 Object-Oriented
    3.4.6 Layers
    3.4.7 Message Frames
    3.4.8 The CANbus Data Frame
    3.4.8.1 Bits, Binary, and So On
    3.4.9 Profiles
    3.4.10 Connecting CANbus Devices
    3.4.11 Hardware Configuration
    3.4.12 Bus Contention
    3.4.13 Bus Arbitration
    3.4.14 Message Priority
    3.4.15 CSMA/CD
    3.4.16 Non-Destructive Bitwise Arbitration
    3.4.17 Bit Encoding
    3.4.18 CANopen Objects
    3.4.19 Network Management
    3.4.20 Minimal Functionality Devices
    3.4.21 Error Detection
    3.5 PROFIBUS
    3.6 HART
    3.6.1 HART Data
    3.6.2 Process Variables
    3.6.3 HART Network Connections
    3.6.4 Seven-Layer Model
    3.6.5 Device Description Language (DDL)
    3.6.6 Long Form Address versus Short Form Address
    3.6.7 Communication Speed
    3.6.8 Installing Leader and Field Devices in a Wired System
    3.6.8.1 Wiring
    3.6.8.2 Primary or Secondary Leader
    3.6.8.3 Calibration
    3.6.8.4 Troubleshooting
    3.6.9 WirelessHART
    3.7 Industrial Ethernet
    3.7.1 EtherNet/IP
    3.7.2 OSI Model
    3.7.3 Connections
    3.8 Modbus
    3.8.1 Introduction
    3.8.2 Modbus Versions
    3.8.3 Communication
    3.8.4 Object Types
    3.8.5 Commands
    3.8.6 Frames
    3.9 Questions for Review
    Chapter 4 Resistive/Potentiometric Sensing
    4.1 Resistive Position Sensors
    4.2 Resistance
    4.3 History of Resistors and Resistive Position Sensors
    4.4 Position Sensor Design
    4.5 The Resistive Element
    4.6 The Wiper
    4.7 Linear and Rotary Mechanics
    4.8 Signal Conditioning
    4.9 Advantages/Disadvantages
    4.10 Typical Performance Parameters
    4.10.1 Nonlinearity
    4.10.2 Hysteresis
    4.10.3 Wear/Lifetime
    4.10.4 Dead Zones
    4.11 Specifications and Application
    4.12 Manufacturers
    4.13 Questions for Review
    Chapter 5 Cable Extension Transducers
    5.1 Cable Extension Transducer History
    5.2 Cable Extension Transducer Construction
    5.3 Signal Conditioning
    5.4 Application
    5.4.1 Gravity
    5.4.2 Wind
    5.4.3 Shock and Vibration
    5.4.4 Stretch and T/C
    5.4.5 Adding a Pulley
    5.5 Advantages/Disadvantages
    5.6 Performance Specifications
    5.6.1 Nonlinearity
    5.6.2 Hysteresis
    5.6.3 Sine Error
    5.7 Typical Specification
    5.8 Manufacturers
    5.9 Questions for Review
    Chapter 6 Capacitive Sensing
    6.1 Capacitive Position Sensors
    6.2 Capacitance
    6.3 Dielectric Constant
    6.4 History of Capacitive Position Sensors
    6.5 Capacitive Position Sensor Design
    6.6 Electronic Circuits for Capacitive Sensors
    6.7 Guard Electrodes
    6.8 EMI/RFI
    6.9 Typical Performance Specifications and Application
    6.10 Manufacturers
    6.11 Questions for Review
    References
    Chapter 7 Inductive Sensing
    7.1 Inductive Position Sensors
    7.2 Inductance
    7.3 Permeability
    7.4 History of Inductive Position Sensors
    7.5 Inductive Position Sensor Design
    7.6 The Coil and Bobbin
    7.7 Core
    7.8 Signal Conditioning
    7.9 Advantages
    7.10 Typical Application and Performance Specifications
    7.11 Manufacturers
    7.12 Questions for Review
    Chapter 8 The LVDT and RVDT
    8.1 LVDT and RVDT Position Sensors
    8.2 History of the LVDT and RVDT
    8.3 LVDT and RVDT Position Sensor Design
    8.4 Coils
    8.5 Core
    8.6 Carrier Frequency
    8.7 Demodulation
    8.8 Signal Conditioning
    8.9 Synchronization
    8.10 Calibration
    8.11 Advantages
    8.12 Typical Performance Specifications and Application
    8.13 Manufacturers
    8.14 Questions for Review
    References
    Chapter 9 Distributed Impedance
    9.1 Distributed Impedance Position Sensors
    9.2 History
    9.3 Operational Theory
    9.4 The Distributed Impedance Sensing Element as a Transmission Line
    9.5 Periodic Structures
    9.6 Hybrid Waves
    9.7 Distributed Impedance Sensor Design
    9.8 Electronics
    9.9 Advantages
    9.10 Typical Performance Specifications and Applications
    9.11 Infinite Resolution?
    9.12 Calibration
    9.13 Manufacturers
    9.14 Questions for Review
    References
    Chapter 10 The Hall Effect
    10.1 Hall Effect Sensors
    10.2 The Hall Effect
    10.3 History of the Hall Effect
    10.4 Hall Effect Position Sensor Design
    10.5 The Hall Effect Element
    10.6 Electronics
    10.7 Linear Arrays
    10.8 Advantages
    10.9 Typical Performance Specifications and Applications
    10.10 Manufacturers
    10.11 Questions for Review
    References
    Chapter 11 Magnetoresistive Sensing
    11.1 Magnetoresistive Sensors
    11.2 Magnetoresistance
    11.3 History of Magnetoresistive Sensors
    11.4 Magnetoresistive Position Sensor Design
    11.5 The Magnetoresistive Element
    11.6 Linear Arrays
    11.7 Electronics
    11.8 Advantages of Magnetoresistive Sensors
    11.9 Typical Performance Specifications and Applications
    11.10 Manufacturers
    11.11 Questions for Review
    References
    Chapter 12 Magnetostrictive Sensing
    12.1 Magnetostrictive Sensors
    12.2 Magnetostriction
    12.3 History of Magnetostriction
    12.4 Magnetostrictive Position Sensor Design
    12.5 Waveguide
    12.6 Position Magnet
    12.7 Pickup Devices
    12.8 Damp
    12.9 Waveguide Suspension
    12.10 Electronics
    12.11 Angular/Rotary Magnetostrictive Sensors
    12.12 Advantages
    12.13 Typical Performance Specifications
    12.14 Application
    12.15 Manufacturers
    12.16 Questions for Review
    References
    Chapter 13 Encoders
    13.1 Linear and Rotary
    13.2 History of Encoders
    13.3 Construction
    13.4 Absolute versus Incremental Encoders
    13.5 Optical Encoders
    13.6 Magnetic Encoders
    13.7 Capacitive Encoders
    13.8 Quadrature
    13.8.1 Burst Mode
    13.9 Binary versus Gray Code
    13.10 Electronics
    13.11 Advantages
    13.12 Typical Performance Specifications and Applications
    13.13 Manufacturers
    13.14 Questions for Review
    Chapter 14 Optical Triangulation
    14.1 Linear Sensing
    14.2 History
    14.3 Construction
    14.4 Light Sensor
    14.4.1 PSD
    14.4.2 CCD
    14.4.3 CMOS
    14.5 Electronics
    14.6 Laser
    14.7 Advantages
    14.8 Typical Performance Specifications and Applications
    14.9 Manufacturers
    14.10 Questions for Review
    Chapter 15 Ultrasonic Sensing
    15.1 Ultrasonic Position Sensing
    15.2 History
    15.3 Construction
    15.4 Transducer
    15.5 Design Considerations
    15.5.1 Echo Amplitude
    15.6 Electronics
    15.7 Advantages
    15.8 Typical Performance Specifications
    15.9 Manufacturers
    15.10 Questions for Review
    References and Bibliography
    Glossary of Sensor Terminology
    Index