Toxicological profiles - Cobalt

DRAFT TOXICOLOGICAL PROFILE FOR COBALT......Page 1
DISCLAIMER......Page 2
UPDATE STATEMENT......Page 3
FOREWORD......Page 4
QUICK REFERENCE FOR HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS......Page 6
CONTRIBUTORS......Page 9
PEER REVIEW......Page 10
CONTENTS......Page 11
LIST OF FIGURES......Page 15
LIST OF TABLES......Page 16
1.1 WHAT IS COBALT?......Page 18
1.2 WHAT HAPPENS TO COBALT WHEN IT ENTERS THE ENVIRONMENT?......Page 20
1.3 HOW MIGHT I BE EXPOSED TO COBALT?......Page 22
1.5 HOW CAN COBALT AFFECT MY HEALTH?......Page 24
1.7 HOW CAN FAMILIES REDUCE THE RISK OF EXPOSURE TO COBALT?......Page 28
1.9 WHAT RECOMMENDATIONS HAS THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT MADE TO PROTECT HUMAN HEALTH?......Page 29
1.10 WHERE CAN I GET MORE INFORMATION?......Page 30
2.1 BACKGROUND AND ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES TO COBALT IN THE UNITED STATES......Page 32
2.2 SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS......Page 33
2.3 MINIMAL RISK LEVELS......Page 39
UNKNOWN......Page 0
3.2 DISCUSSION OF HEALTH EFFECTS BY ROUTE OF EXPOSURE......Page 43
3.3 GENOTOXICITY......Page 123
3.2.1.1 Death......Page 45
3.2.1.2 Systemic Effects......Page 57
3.2.1.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects......Page 64
3.2.1.5 Reproductive Effects......Page 65
3.2.1.7 Cancer......Page 66
3.2.2.1 Death......Page 68
3.2.2.2 Systemic Effects......Page 84
3.2.2.4 Neurological Effects......Page 91
3.2.2.5 Reproductive Effects......Page 92
3.2.2.7 Cancer......Page 93
3.2.3.2 Systemic Effects......Page 94
3.2.3.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects......Page 95
3.2.4 External Exposure......Page 97
3.2.4.1 Death......Page 113
3.2.4.2 Systemic Effects......Page 114
3.2.4.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects......Page 118
3.2.4.4 Neurological Effects......Page 119
3.2.4.5 Reproductive Effects......Page 120
3.2.4.6 Developmental Effects......Page 121
3.2.4.7 Cancer......Page 122
3.4.1.1 Inhalation Exposure......Page 129
3.4.1.2 Oral Exposure......Page 131
3.4.2 Distribution......Page 134
3.4.2.2 Oral Exposure......Page 135
3.4.2.4 Other Routes of Exposure......Page 136
3.4.4.1 Inhalation Exposure......Page 137
3.4.4.2 Oral Exposure......Page 138
3.4.4.3 Dermal Exposure......Page 140
3.4.4.4 Other Routes of Exposure......Page 141
3.4.5 Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic (PBPK)/Pharmacodynamic (PD) Models......Page 143
3.5.1 Pharmacokinetic Mechanisms......Page 158
3.5.2 Mechanisms of Toxicity......Page 160
3.5.3 Animal-to-Human Extrapolations......Page 163
3.6 ENDOCRINE DISRUPTION......Page 164
3.7 CHILDREN’S SUSCEPTIBILITY......Page 166
3.8 BIOMARKERS OF EXPOSURE AND EFFECT......Page 169
3.8.1 Biomarkers Used to Identify or Quantify Exposure to Cobalt......Page 170
3.9 INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER CHEMICALS......Page 173
3.10 POPULATIONS THAT ARE UNUSUALLY SUSCEPTIBLE......Page 174
3.11 METHODS FOR REDUCING TOXIC EFFECTS......Page 175
3.11.2 Reducing Body Burden......Page 176
3.12.1 Existing Information on Health Effects of Cobalt......Page 177
3.12.2 Identification of Data Needs......Page 180
3.12.3 Ongoing Studies......Page 189
4.2 PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES......Page 190
5.1 PRODUCTION......Page 200
5.3 USE......Page 206
5.4 DISPOSAL......Page 208
6.1 OVERVIEW......Page 211
6.2 RELEASES TO THE ENVIRONMENT......Page 216
6.2.1 Air......Page 220
6.2.2 Water......Page 221
6.3 ENVIRONMENTAL FATE......Page 223
6.3.1 Transport and Partitioning......Page 224
6.3.2.2 Water......Page 230
6.3.2.3 Sediment and Soil......Page 232
6.4.1 Air......Page 233
6.4.2 Water......Page 234
6.4.3 Sediment and Soil......Page 241
6.4.4 Other Environmental Media......Page 244
6.5 GENERAL POPULATION AND OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE......Page 250
6.6 EXPOSURES OF CHILDREN......Page 258
6.7 POPULATIONS WITH POTENTIALLY HIGH EXPOSURES......Page 259
6.8.1 Identification of Data Needs......Page 260
6.8.2 Ongoing Studies......Page 264
7.1.1 Internal Cobalt Measurements......Page 267
7.1.2 External Radiation Measurements......Page 271
7.3 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE......Page 279
7.3.1 Identification of Data Needs......Page 280
7.3.2 Ongoing Studies......Page 281
7.2 ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES......Page 273
7.2.2 Laboratory Analysis of Environmental Samples......Page 274
8. REGULATIONS AND ADVISORIES......Page 283
9. REFERENCES......Page 305
Acute Exposure......Page 390
Attenuation Coefficient......Page 391
Case Report......Page 392
Cross-sectional Study......Page 393
Disintegration......Page 394
Dose, Fractionation......Page 395
Epidemiology......Page 396
Gamma Ray, Penetrating......Page 397
Internal Conversion......Page 398
Late Effects......Page 399
Morbidity......Page 400
Permissible Exposure Limit......Page 401
Quality......Page 402
Radioactive Material......Page 403
Reportable Quantity......Page 404
Stopping Power......Page 405
Uncertainty Factor......Page 406
Zero-Threshold Linear Hypothesis......Page 407
APPENDIX A ATSDR MINIMAL RISK LEVEL AND WORKSHEETS......Page 408
MINIMAL RISK LEVEL (MRL) WORKSHEET......Page 410
MINIMAL RISK LEVEL (MRL) WORKSHEET......Page 413
MINIMAL RISK LEVEL (MRL) WORKSHEET......Page 415
MINIMAL RISK LEVEL (MRL) WORKSHEET......Page 418
USER'S GUIDE......Page 421
ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND SYMBOLS......Page 428
OVERVIEW OF BASIC RADIATION PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, AND BIOLOGY......Page 433
D.2.4.2.1 Beta Negative Emission.......Page 437
D.3.1.2 Absorbed Dose and Absorbed Dose Rate.......Page 438
D.3.2.2 Inhalation.......Page 439
REFERENCES FOR APPENDIX D......Page 445