Tomato Processing by-Products: Sustainable Applications

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Contents
Contributors
CHAPTER ONE - Identification, quantification, and characterization of tomato processing by-products
1.1 Introduction (quantitative data for raw materials, industries, final products)
1.2 Tomato production processing and technology
1.2.1 Harvest - preharvest factor affecting the tomato quality
1.2.2 Postharvest technologies to maintain tomato fruit quality
1.2.3 Tomato transit from field to processing factory
1.2.4 Raw material pretreatments
1.2.4.1 Sorting
1.2.4.1.1 Dry sorting
1.2.4.1.2 Size grading
1.2.4.1.3 Final sorting and trimming
1.2.4.2 Peeling
1.2.4.2.1 Steam peeling
1.2.4.2.2 Lye peeling
1.2.5 Processing - processed tomato products
1.2.5.1 Canned tomatoes
1.2.5.2 Whole peeled tomatoes
1.2.5.3 Diced tomatoes
1.2.5.4 Tomato purée (pulp)
1.2.5.5 Tomato paste
1.2.5.6 Tomato juice
1.3 Tomato processing by-products: solid wastes
1.3.1 Treatment of tomato pomace
1.4 Characterization/composition of tomato pomace
1.4.1 Amino acids
1.4.2 Fatty acids
1.4.3 Total phenolics and carotenoids
1.4.4 Minerals
1.5 Sustainable management for tomato processing by-products and wastes
1.5.1 Current practices
1.5.1.1 Current practices for tomato pomace
1.5.1.2 Current practices for water in tomato processing plants
1.5.2 Sustainable management for water in tomato processing plants
1.5.3 Sustainable applications of tomato processing by-products (tomato pomace)
1.5.3.1 Food industry
1.5.3.2 Biotechnology and pharmaceutical industry
1.5.4 Legislation for sustainable management of food waste and valorization of food by-products
1.6 Conclusions - future trends
References
CHAPTER TWO - Tomato by-products as animal feed
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Chemical composition and nutritive value of tomato by-products
2.2.1 Tomato pomace
2.2.2 Tomato peels
2.2.3 Tomato seeds
2.2.4 Cull tomatoes
2.3 Use of tomato by-products in animal feeding
2.3.1 Cattle and buffalo
2.3.2 Sheep and goats
2.3.3 Pigs
2.3.4 Poultry (broilers and laying hens)
2.3.5 Rabbits
2.3.6 Fish
2.4 Companion animals
2.5 Conclusions
References
CHAPTER THREE - Extraction and formulation of valuable components from tomato processing by-products
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Valuable compounds present in tomato processing by-products
3.2.1 Carotenoids
3.2.1.1 Lycopene
3.2.1.2 β-carotene
3.2.1.3 Lutein
3.2.2 Phenolic compounds
3.2.3 Vitamins
3.2.4 Dietary fibers
3.2.5 Proteins
3.2.6 Essential oils
3.3 Extraction methods available for the recovery of valuable compounds from tomato processing by-products
3.3.1 Conventional solvent extraction
3.3.1.1 Effect of solvent nature
3.3.1.2 Effect of solvent to solid ratio
3.3.1.3 Effect of number of extractions and extraction time
3.3.1.4 Effect of extraction temperature
3.3.1.5 Effect of particle size
3.3.2 Enzyme-assisted extraction
3.3.3 Ultrasound assisted extraction
3.3.4 Microwave assisted extraction
3.3.5 High hydrostatic pressure extraction
3.3.6 Supercritical fluid extraction
3.3.7 Pulsed electric field
3.3.8 Other newly explored techniques
3.4 Potential applications for the valorization of tomato processing by-products
3.4.1 Properties of the valuable compounds extracted from tomato processing by-products
3.4.1.1 Antioxidant properties
3.4.1.2 Chemoprevention and reduced risk of eye and cardiovascular diseases
3.4.1.3 Antimicrobial properties
3.4.1.4 Natural colorant
3.4.1.5 Gelling properties
3.4.2 Applications in food formulation
3.4.2.1 Meat products
3.4.2.2 Grain products
3.4.2.3 Dairy and oil products
3.4.2.4 Sweet products
3.4.3 Applications in cosmetic and pharmaceutical industry
3.5 Summary and perspectives
References
CHAPTER FOUR - Ingredients for food products
4.1 Introduction (nutritive constituents, bioactive compounds of tomato processing by-products)
4.2 Valuable components (quantitative data, chemistry, role in nutrition, commercial product)
4.2.1 Nutritive components (protein, lipids)
4.2.1.1 Proteins
4.2.1.2 Lipids
4.2.2 Bioactive compounds (carotenoids, lycopene)
4.3 Processing for isolation of valuable components
4.3.1 Tomato seed oil
4.3.1.1 Conventional oil extraction methods
4.3.1.2 Innovative lipid recovery processes
4.3.2 Protein products
4.3.2.1 Technological procedures for protein products delivery
4.3.2.1.1 Protein concentrates
4.3.2.1.2 Protein isolates
4.3.2.1.3 Extraction
4.3.2.1.4 Precipitation - drying
4.3.2.1.5 Alternative processes - products
4.3.2.1.6 Biological value of protein products
4.3.3 Carotenoids - lycopene
4.3.3.1 Conventional/solvent extraction
4.3.3.2 Innovative processes for carotenoids recovery
4.3.3.2.1 Ionic liquids as solvents for extraction
4.3.3.2.2 Supercritical fluid extraction with carbon dioxide
4.3.3.2.3 Microwave-assisted extraction
4.3.3.2.4 Ultrasonic-assisted extraction
4.3.3.2.5 High hydrostatic pressure extraction
4.3.3.2.6 Enzyme-assisted extraction
4.3.3.2.7 Pulsed electric field extraction
4.3.3.2.8 Accelerated solvent extraction
4.3.3.2.9 Final product formation
4.3.4 Fiber
4.4 Uses of products in foods, feeds, pharmaceuticals - functional foods
4.5 Utilization—added value products—nonpurified by-products
4.6 Future trends - innovative technologies (for isolation of valuable components)
References
CHAPTER FIVE - Tomato wastes valorization for bio-based materials production
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Tomato waste characterizations in bio-based materials synthesis
5.2.1 Chemical composition
5.2.2 Morphological and textural properties
5.2.3 Water vapor sorption
5.2.4 Thermal properties
5.3 Bio-based materials production
5.3.1 Biodegradable pots
5.3.2 Particleboard
5.3.3 Ceramic materials
5.3.4 Paperboard
5.3.5 Plastic films
5.4 Conclusion
References
CHAPTER SIX - Biochar production from the pyrolysis of tomato processing residues
6.1 Production and management of food processing wastes
6.2 The case study of tomato
6.2.1 Tomato organoleptic characteristics
6.2.2 Tomato processing
6.3 Tomato-derived biochar
6.3.1 Laboratory production of biochar
6.4 Agricultural valorization of tomato waste biochar as a sustainable recycling practice
6.4.1 Biochars as soil organic amendments or hydroponic substrates
6.4.2 Properties and impact of lignocellulosic biochars
6.4.3 Case of tomato residues
6.5 Life cycle analysis
6.6 Conclusions
References
CHAPTER SEVEN - Vermicomposting of tomato wastes
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 The forecast of tomato cultivation
7.1.2 Fresh tomato wastes
7.1.3 Tomato processing by-products
7.2 Composting and vermicomposting processes
7.2.1 Composting transformations
7.3 Vermicomposting
7.3.1 Conditions for vermicomposting
7.3.2 Vermicomposting of tomato wastes
7.3.3 Advantages of vermicomposting
7.3.4 Application as soil amendment
7.4 Conclusion
References
CHAPTER EIGHT - Environmental applications of tomato processing by-products
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Synthesis and characterization of carbonaceous materials from tomato wastes
8.2.1 Nonactivated biochars
8.2.1.1 Used raw feedstock properties and pyrolysis conditions
8.2.1.2 Raw biochars characteristics
8.2.1.2.1 Morphological and textural properties
8.2.1.2.2 Surface chemistry properties
8.2.2 Activated carbon
8.2.2.1 Activation procedures
8.2.2.2 Synthesis
8.2.2.3 Characterization of activated carbons
8.2.2.3.1 Morphological properties
8.2.2.3.2 Textural properties
8.2.2.3.3 Surface chemistry properties
8.3 Use of tomato wastes for pollutant removal from aqueous solutions
8.3.1 Case of inorganic pollutants
8.3.1.1 Use of raw tomato wastes
8.3.1.2 Use of tomato waste biochars
8.3.1.3 Use of activated carbons
8.3.1.4 Involved mechanisms
8.3.2 Case of organic pollutants
8.3.2.1 Use of raw tomato wastes
8.3.2.2 Use of raw tomato wastes derived biochars
8.3.2.3 Use of activated carbons
8.3.2.4 Involved mechanisms [45]
Conclusions
References
CHAPTER NINE - Thermochemical conversion of tomato wastes
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Combustion
9.2.1 Thermogravimetric and kinetic analyses
9.2.1.1 Thermal degradation behavior
9.2.1.2 Kinetic parameters extraction
9.2.2 Combustion
9.2.2.1 Densification
9.2.2.2 Emission issues
9.2.2.3 Deposit formation
9.2.2.4 Corrosion
9.2.2.5 Ash recycling for agricultural applications
9.3 Pyrolysis, torrefaction, and hydrothermal carbonisation processes
9.3.1 Thermogravimetric and kinetic analyses
9.3.1.1 Thermal degradation behavior
9.3.1.2 Kinetic parameters extraction
9.3.2 Pyrolysis
9.3.2.1 Biochar and carbon materials production
9.3.2.2 Biofuel (energy, alternative fuel) production
9.3.2.2.1 Bio-oil production
9.3.2.2.2 Combustion and emission characteristics of bio-oil in diesel engine
9.4 Torrefaction application to tomato wastes
9.5 Hydrothermal carbonisation
9.6 Gasification
9.7 Conclusion
References
CHAPTER TEN - Biofuels production: Biogas, biodiesel and bioethanol from tomato wastes
Acronyms
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Biogas production
10.2.1 Overview
10.2.2 Digestion and codigestion of tomato wastes
10.2.2.1 Digestion
10.2.2.2 Codigestion
10.2.2.3 Digestate
10.3 Biodiesel production
10.3.1 Biodiesel production and utilization in general
10.3.2 Oil extraction and characterization
10.3.3 Biodiesel production
10.3.4 Biodiesel characterization
10.4 Bioethanol production
10.4.1 Pretreatment techniques
10.4.2 Hydrolysis step, saccharification
10.4.3 Fermentation step and bioethanol production
10.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter ELEVEN - Biorefinery concept for the industrial valorization of tomato processing by-products
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Tomato waste characterization and basic ideas about recovery
11.3 Bioactive compounds in tomato waste
11.3.1 Carotenoids
11.3.1.1 Conventional extraction
11.3.1.2 Ultrasound-assisted extraction
11.3.1.3 Supercritical fluid extraction
11.3.1.4 Encapsulation technology
11.3.1.5 Pulsed electric fields
11.3.2 Antioxidant components
11.3.3 Pectins
11.3.4 Oleoresins
11.4 Anaerobic digestion of tomato waste
11.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Index
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