Thermochemical and Catalytic Conversion Technologies for Future Biorefineries: Volume 2

Preface
Acknowledgment
Contents
Editor and Contributors
Chapter 1: Lignocellulosic Biomass Valorization and Fate of Recalcitrant
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Plant Cell Characterization for LCB
1.2.1 Lignin
1.2.2 Cellulose
1.2.3 Hemicellulose
1.3 Factors Affecting LCB Recalcitrance
1.3.1 Structural Factors
1.3.1.1 Crystallinity
1.3.1.2 Particle Size
1.3.1.3 Accessible Surface Area (ASA)
1.3.1.4 Accessible Volume (Pore Size: Internal Surface Area)
1.3.2 Chemical Factors
1.3.2.1 Lignin Removal
1.3.2.2 Cellulose Polymerization
1.3.2.3 Hemicellulose and Acetyl Group Biopolymers
1.3.2.4 Cell Wall Protein
1.4 Pretreatment Processes in LCB Valorization
1.4.1 Physical Methods
1.4.1.1 Milling
1.4.1.2 Microwave Radiation
1.4.1.3 Pyrolysis
1.4.1.4 Ultrasonification
1.4.2 Chemical Treatment
1.4.2.1 Acid Pretreatment
1.4.2.2 Alkali Pretreatment
1.4.2.3 Organosolv Pretreatment
1.4.2.4 Ionic Liquid Pretreatment
1.4.3 Physicochemical Methods
1.4.3.1 Steam Explosion Method
1.4.3.2 Ammonia Fiber Expansion (AFEX)
1.4.3.3 CO2 Explosion Method
1.4.3.4 Liquid Hot Water (LHW)
1.4.4 Biological Pretreatment
1.5 Strategies to Enhance Enzymatic Conversion Based-Biorefinery
1.5.1 Pretreatment Regimes to Overcome LCB Recalcitrance
1.5.2 Challenges of Lignin Condensation and Repolymerization
1.5.2.1 Undesirable Reaction Occurring During Lignin Depolymerization Process
1.5.2.2 Structural Modification of Lignin During Pretreatment to Avoid Condensation and Repolymerization
1.5.2.3 Recent Advancements in Capping Agents
1.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 2: Insight into Various Conventional Physical and Chemical Methods for the Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Components of Lignocellulosic Biomass
2.2.1 Cellulose
2.2.2 Hemicellulose
2.2.3 Lignin
2.3 Different Technologies for Lignocellulosic Biomass Pretreatment
2.3.1 Physical Pretreatment Process
2.3.1.1 Milling
2.3.1.2 Extrusion
2.3.1.3 Pyrolysis
2.3.1.4 Microwave
2.3.1.5 Freeze Pretreatment
2.3.2 Physico-Chemical Pretreatment Process
2.3.2.1 Steam Explosion
2.3.2.2 Ammonia Fiber Explosion (AFEX)
2.3.2.3 CO2 Explosion
2.3.2.4 Liquid Hot Water Pretreatment
2.3.2.5 Irradiation
2.3.2.6 Ultrasonication
2.3.3 Chemical Pretreatment Process
2.3.3.1 Ozonolysis
2.3.3.2 Acid Hydrolysis
2.3.3.3 Alkali Hydrolysis
2.3.3.4 Organosolv Pretreatment
2.3.3.5 Oxidative Lime Pretreatment (OLP)
2.3.3.6 Ionic Liquid Treatment
2.4 Current Challenges in the Pretreatment Methods
2.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: Physical and Chemical Hydrolysis Methods for Breaking Down the Complex Waste Biomass to the Fermentable Sugars and ...
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Physical and Chemical Hydrolysis Methods of Waste
3.2.1 Physical Treatment Methods
3.2.1.1 Mechanical Crushing
3.2.1.2 Microwave Treatment
3.2.1.3 Ultrasonication
3.2.2 Chemical Treatments
3.2.2.1 Acid Pretreatment
3.2.2.2 Alkali Treatment
3.2.3 Enzymatic Treatment
3.3 Conventional Chemical Hydrolysis Methods for the Treatment of Agricultural Wastes
3.4 Conventional Hydrolysis Methods for Treatment of Poultry and Dairy Wastewater
3.5 Conventional and Recent Hydrolysis Methods for the Treatment of Sewage and Sludge
References
Chapter 4: Critical Evaluation of the Role of Enzymes in the Integrated Biorefinery
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Different Processes and Products of Biorefinery
4.2.1 Various Biorefinery Processes
4.2.1.1 Mechanical Processes
4.2.1.2 Chemical Processes
4.2.1.3 Biochemical Processes
4.2.1.4 Thermochemical Processes
4.2.2 Various Products of Biorefinery
4.3 Role of Various Enzymes
4.3.1 Methods of Enhancing Enzyme Efficiency and Stability
4.3.1.1 Roles of some Enzymes and Their Effectivity Improvements
4.3.1.1.1 Cellulase
4.3.1.1.1.1 Cellulase Effectivity Improvement
4.3.1.1.2 Hemicellulase
4.3.1.1.2.1 Hemicellulase Effectivity Improvement
4.3.1.1.3 Xylanase
4.3.1.1.3.1 Xylanase Effectivity Improvement
4.3.1.2 Enzyme Stability
4.3.1.2.1 Enzyme Stabilization Methods
4.3.1.2.1.1 Naturally Stabilizing Enzymes
4.3.1.2.1.2 Mesophilic Enzymes
4.3.1.2.1.2.1 By Modifying Protein Structure
4.3.1.2.1.2.2 By Chemical Modifications
4.3.1.2.1.2.2 Substituting Monofunctional Proteins
4.3.1.2.1.2.2 By Grafting to Polysaccharides
4.3.1.2.1.2.2 By Grafting to Synthetic Polymers
4.3.1.2.1.2.3 Additive Stabilized Enzymes
4.3.1.2.1.2.4 Solvent Stabilized Enzymes
4.3.1.2.1.2.5 Addition of Salts
4.4 Optimization of Enzymatic Biochemical Process
4.4.1 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
4.4.2 Fermentation
4.4.2.1 Bioethanol
4.4.2.2 Biobutanol
4.5 Critical Evaluation of Enzyme Activity in Biorefinery
4.5.1 Merits and Demerits of Enzyme Technology in Integrated Biorefinery
4.5.1.1 Merits of Enzyme Technology
4.5.1.2 Demerits of Enzyme Technology
4.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5: Process Efficacy in Cassava-Based Biorefinery: Scalable Process Technology for the Development of Green Monomer d-L...
5.1 Green Monomers-Process Integration
5.2 Cassava Biorefinery Current Scenario
5.2.1 Cassava Production
5.2.2 Cassava Utilization
5.2.3 Economic Viability
5.2.4 Value Addition
5.3 Biomass Waste Valorization
5.3.1 Need
5.3.2 Marketability and Competitiveness
5.4 Socio Environment Impact and Acceptance
5.5 d-Lactic Acid
5.6 Market Demand and Stakeholders
5.7 Processing Difficulty: Need of Enzymes
5.8 Critical Process Parameters and Fermentation Barriers
5.9 Scalable Enzymatic Technologies
5.10 Purification Hurdles and Energy Accountability
5.11 Existing Technology and Bioprocessing Strategies
5.12 Summary
References
Chapter 6: Waste Derived Supports for Immobilization of Lipase Towards Enhancing Efficiency and Reusability of Enzymes
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Lipase: Action Mechanisms
6.3 Supports for Enzymes
6.3.1 Mesoporous Nano-support
6.3.1.1 Carbon Support Preparation
6.3.1.2 Activity of Carbon as Nanomaterial
6.3.1.3 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)
6.3.2 Magnetically Active Nano-Support
6.3.2.1 Magnetic Nanoparticle Stabilization
6.3.2.2 Functionalization over Magnetic Nanoparticles
6.3.2.2.1 Impregnation Method
6.3.2.2.2 Coprecipitation Method
6.3.2.2.3 Hydrothermal Method
6.3.2.2.4 Sol-Gel Method
6.3.2.2.5 Pyrolysis
6.3.2.2.6 Grafting
6.3.2.2.7 Cross-Linking
6.3.2.3 Magnetic Nanoparticle Synthesis
6.3.2.3.1 Preparation of Fe3O4 Nanoparticles
6.3.2.3.2 Preparation of γ-Fe2O3 Nanoparticles
6.3.2.3.3 Preparation of Other Magnetic Nanoparticles
6.4 Silica-Based Magnetic Nanoparticle Synthesis
6.4.1 Preparation of SiO2-MX Support
6.4.2 Preparation of the Hydrophobic SiO2/HPB-MX Support
6.5 Zeolite as a Support
6.5.1 Cross-Linking Immobilization
6.5.2 Adsorption Immobilization
6.5.3 Covalent Immobilization
6.5.4 Entrapment Immobilization
6.6 TLL Immobilization on Magnetic Support
6.7 Co-immobilization
6.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Valorization of Dairy Industry Waste into Functional Foods Using Lactase
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Whey
7.2.1 Classification of Whey
7.2.2 Applications
7.2.3 Environmental Impact
7.3 Valorization of Whey
7.3.1 Whey Powder
7.3.2 Whey Proteins
7.3.3 Minerals
7.3.4 Lactose
7.3.4.1 Lactobionic Acid
7.3.4.2 Lactitol
7.3.4.3 Functional Foods
7.4 Functional Foods
7.5 Galactooligosaccharides
7.5.1 Physicochemical Properties
7.5.2 Health Benefits
7.5.3 Production of GOS
7.5.3.1 Extraction from Natural Resources
7.5.3.2 Chemical Synthesis
7.5.3.3 Enzymatic Synthesis of GOS
7.5.3.3.1 Hydrolysis Reaction
7.5.3.3.2 Trans-Galactosylation Reaction
7.5.4 Origin of Lactase
7.5.5 Hydrolysis Mechanism
7.5.6 Reactor Configuration
7.6 Recent Advances in GOS Production
7.7 Conclusions and Prospects
References
Chapter 8: Biorefineries: An Integrated Approach for Sustainable Energy Production
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Industrial Application of Biotechnology
8.3 Biorefinery Principles
8.3.1 Role of Microbes
8.3.2 Biomass Feedstock
8.3.2.1 Sugar or Starch-Rich Crops
8.3.2.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass
8.3.2.3 Industrial and Municipal Wastes as Biomass Feedstock
8.3.2.4 Lipids, Proteins, and Nucleic Acids
8.4 Classification of Biorefineries
8.4.1 Platforms Recognized in Energy-Driven Biorefineries
8.4.2 The Feedstock Used in Biorefineries
8.4.3 Conversion Processes Used in Biorefineries
8.4.4 Products of Biorefineries
8.5 Advances in Biotechnological Tools Within Biorefineries
8.5.1 Metabolic Engineering
8.5.2 Genetic Engineering
8.5.3 Cell Surface Engineering
8.6 Biorefineries and Petrochemical Refineries
8.7 Goals and Scope of Biorefineries
8.8 Challenges in Biorefineries
8.9 Outlook and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 9: Biomass Recalcitrance and Omics Approaches for Understanding the Chemistry Affecting Recalcitrance
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Sources of Lignocellulosic Biomass
9.2 Biomass and its Composition
9.2.1 Importance of Biomass
9.3 Pretreatment Methods for Lignocellulosic Biomass
9.3.1 Physical Pretreatment Method
9.3.1.1 Milling
9.3.1.2 Microwave
9.3.1.3 Extrusion
9.3.1.4 Ultrasonication
9.3.1.5 Freezing
9.3.2 Chemical Pretreatment
9.3.2.1 Alkali Pretreatment
9.3.2.2 Acid Treatment
9.3.2.3 Ionic Liquids
9.3.2.4 Organosolv Process
9.3.2.5 Deep Eutectic Solvent
9.3.3 Physicochemical Pretreatment
9.3.3.1 Steam Explosion
9.3.3.2 Ammonia Fiber Explosion (AFEX)
9.3.3.3 CO2 Explosion
9.3.3.4 Liquid Hot Water (LHW)
9.3.4 Biological Pretreatment
9.4 Biomass Recalcitrance and Bioconversion
9.4.1 Factors Contributing to Biomass Recalcitrance
9.4.1.1 Celluloses
9.4.1.2 Hemicelluloses
9.4.1.3 Lignin
9.4.2 Biomass Conversion
9.4.2.1 Thermochemical Conversion
9.4.2.2 Biochemical Conversion
9.5 Role of Omics Approach in Understanding the Biomass Structure and Chemistry Affecting Recalcitrance During Pretreatment
9.5.1 Transcription Factors and Genomic Tools
9.5.2 Transcriptomic and Proteomic Approach
9.5.3 Metagenomic Analysis
9.5.4 Secretomics
9.5.5 Next-Generation Sequencing
9.6 Conclusion and Future Prospective
References
Chapter 10: Demonstration of Application of Fungal Xylanase in Fruit Juice and Paper Deinking and Validation of Its Mechanism ...
10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Molecular Docking
10.1.1.1 Key Concept of Molecular Docking
10.1.1.2 Steps Involved in Molecular Docking
10.1.1.2.1 Protein Preparation
10.1.1.2.2 Protein Active Site Prediction
10.1.1.2.3 Ligand Preparation
10.2 Material and Methods
10.2.1 Sample Strains, Substrates, and Chemicals
10.2.2 Culture Plate Characterization and Microscopy
10.2.3 Xylanase Profiling Using Rice Straw Under Submerged Fermentation
10.2.3.1 Xylanase Assay
10.2.3.2 Calculation of Xylanase Activity
10.2.3.3 Protein Estimation by Lowry´s Method
10.2.4 Application of Xylanase in Fruit Juice Clarification and Deinking of Paper
10.2.4.1 Fruit Juice Clarification
10.2.4.1.1 Preparation of Tomatoes Pulp and Enzyme Treatment
10.2.4.1.2 Physio-Chemical Characteristics Determination of Tomato Juice
10.2.4.1.3 Reducing Sugars Determination
10.2.4.1.4 Clarity Determination
10.2.4.1.5 Filterability
10.2.4.2 Deinking of Newspaper
10.2.5 In silico Enzyme Docking
10.2.5.1 Molecular Docking of Xylanase from Penicillium chrysogenum as Model Xylanase Obtained from Penicillium sp.
10.2.6 Molecular Docking of Xylanase from Talaromyces funiculosus as Model Xylanase Obtained from Rhizomucor variabilis
10.3 Results and Discussions
10.3.1 Culture Plate Characteristics and Microscopic Visualization
10.3.2 Xylanase Assay
10.3.2.1 Xylanase Activity of Rhizomucor variabilis
10.3.2.2 Xylanase Activity of Penicillium sp.
10.3.3 Protein Concentration by Lowry´s Method
10.3.3.1 Protein Concentration of Rhizomucor variabilis
10.3.3.2 Protein Concentration of Penicillium sp.
10.3.4 Findings of Fruit Juice Clarification
10.3.4.1 Reducing Sugar Content
10.3.4.2 Clarity
10.3.4.3 Filterability
10.3.5 Findings of Deinking
10.3.6 In Silico Enzyme Docking
10.3.6.1 Molecular Docking of Penicillium sp. by Considering a Base Model of Penicillium chrysogenum Xylanase
10.3.6.2 Molecular Docking of Rhizomucor variabilis by Considering a Base Model of Talaromyces funiculosus
10.4 Conclusion
10.5 Significance and Future Aspects
References
Chapter 11: Life Cycle Assessment of Thermochemical Conversion of Agro Residues
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Agro Residues Availability
11.3 Agro Residues Valorization Through the Thermochemical Route
11.3.1 Direct Combustion
11.3.2 Pyrolysis
11.3.3 Gasification
11.4 Life Cycle Assessment of Thermochemical Conversion Route
11.4.1 Goal and Scope Definition
11.4.2 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis
11.4.3 Environmental Impact Assessment
11.4.3.1 Mid-Point Assessment
11.4.3.2 End-Point Assessment
11.4.4 Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis of Scenarios
11.4.5 Interpretation of Results
11.5 Conclusion
References