Thermal Energy Management in Vehicles

Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Contents
Acknowledgments
Nomenclature List of Abbreviations
About the Companion Website
Introduction
Chapter 1 Fundamentals
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Fundamental Definitions in Thermodynamics
1.2.1 System, Surroundings, and Universe
1.2.2 Properties
1.2.3 Process
1.2.4 Energy
1.2.5 Heat
1.2.6 Work
1.2.6.1 Mechanical Forms of Work
1.2.6.2 Nonmechanical Forms of Work
1.2.7 Enthalpy
1.3 Fluids
1.3.1 Pure and Pseudo‐Pure Fluids
1.3.2 Liquid–Vapor Phase Change for a Pure or Pseudo‐Pure Fluid
1.3.3 Computing the Properties of Pure and Pseudo‐Pure Fluids
1.3.3.1 Phase Rule
1.3.3.2 The Equations of State Relating P, T, and v (Relation Between Measurable Properties)
1.3.3.3 Computing Non‐Measurable Properties (u, h, and s) in General Case of Real Pure Fluids
1.3.3.4 Computing Non‐measurable Properties (u, h, and s) in the Specific Case of Ideal Fluids
1.3.4 Fluids Commonly Used in Automotive Applications
1.3.4.1 Oil
1.3.4.2 Coolant
1.3.4.3 Refrigerant
1.3.4.4 Humid Air
1.4 Heat Transfers
1.4.1 Conduction
1.4.2 Convection
1.4.2.1 Forced Convection
1.4.2.2 Natural Convection
1.4.2.3 Mixed Forced and Natural Convection
1.4.2.4 Sensible and Latent Heat Transfer by Convection
1.4.2.5 Convection Heat Transfer Rates
1.4.2.6 Laminar and Turbulent Regimes
1.4.2.7 Convection Heat Transfer Coefficients
1.4.3 Radiation
1.4.3.1 Emitted Radiation
1.4.3.2 Incident Radiation
1.4.3.3 Kirchhoff's Law and the Gray Surfaces
1.4.3.4 Radiation Exchange Between Surfaces
1.5 First Law of Thermodynamics
1.5.1 Closed System
1.5.2 Open System
1.5.2.1 Mass Balance
1.5.2.2 Energy Balance
1.6 Second Law of Thermodynamics
1.6.1 Concepts and Definitions
1.6.1.1 Heat Reservoir, Source, and Sink
1.6.1.2 Heat Engines
1.6.1.3 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
1.6.2 Kelvin Planck and Clausius Statements of the Second Law
1.6.3 Reversible Processes
1.6.4 Ideal Heat Engines, Refrigerators, and Heat Pumps
1.6.5 Entropy
1.7 Flows in Hydraulic Circuits
1.8 Heat Exchangers
1.8.1 Classification of Heat Exchangers
1.8.1.1 Classification According to the Mechanism of Energy Transfer
1.8.1.2 Classification According to the Phases of Both Fluids
1.8.1.3 Classification According to the Flow Arrangement
1.8.1.4 Classification According to the Pass Arrangement
1.8.1.5 Classification According to the Type of Construction
1.8.2 Energy Balance Across a Heat Exchanger
1.8.3 Performance
1.8.3.1 Thermal Performance
1.8.3.2 Hydraulic Performance
References
Chapter 2 Internal Combustion Engine Thermal Management
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Fundamentals of Internal Combustion Engines
2.2.1 Characteristics of the Internal Combustion Engines
2.2.2 Four‐Stroke Engine Cycle
2.2.3 Combustion Process in the Engines
2.2.3.1 Combustion
2.2.3.2 Spark‐Ignition Engine (SI Engine)
2.2.3.3 Compression‐Ignition Engine (CI Engine)
2.2.4 Pollutant Emissions
2.2.4.1 Driving Cycles and Pollutant Emissions
2.2.4.2 Pollutants
2.2.4.3 Trade‐off and Technological Levers
2.2.5 Energy Analysis
2.2.5.1 Energy Conversion Processes in Engines
2.2.5.2 Engine Overall Energy Balance
2.2.5.3 Engine Overall Energy Performance Indicators
2.2.6 Quantification of the Major Heat Transfers in ICEs
2.2.6.1 Heat Transfer Between Gases and Engine Walls
2.2.6.2 Heat Transfer Between Coolant and Engine Walls
2.2.6.3 Overall Heat Transfer Between the Gas and Coolant
2.2.6.4 Heat Transfer with the Surroundings
2.3 Engine Cooling and Heating
2.3.1 Purpose of Engine Cooling and Heating
2.3.2 Working Principle of Engine Cooling and Heating Systems
2.3.3 Circulation of the Coolant through the Engine
2.3.4 Radiator
2.3.4.1 Purpose of the Radiator
2.3.4.2 Technologies of Radiators
2.3.4.3 Flow Configurations in Radiators
2.3.5 Expansion Tanks
2.3.6 Thermostat
2.3.6.1 Purpose of the Thermostat
2.3.6.2 Working Principle of a Thermostat
2.3.6.3 Technologies of Thermostats
2.3.7 Heating Systems
2.4 Oil Cooling
2.4.1 Purpose of Oil Cooling and Heating
2.4.2 Working Principle of Oil Cooling and Heating Systems
2.4.3 Technologies of Oil Coolers
2.4.3.1 Air‐to‐Oil Coolers
2.4.3.2 Coolant‐to‐Oil Coolers
2.4.4 Oil Temperature Control
2.5 Charge Air Cooling (CAC)
2.5.1 Purpose of Charge Air Cooling and Forced Induction
2.5.2 Working Principle and Technologies of Forced Induction
2.5.2.1 Turbochargers
2.5.2.2 Superchargers
2.5.2.3 Electric Superchargers
2.5.2.4 Compound Forced Induction
2.5.3 Working Principle and Architectures of Charge Air Cooling
2.5.3.1 Charge Air Cooling by Air
2.5.3.2 Charge Air Cooling by Coolant
2.5.3.3 Charge Air Cooling by Refrigerant
2.5.4 Technologies of Charge Air Coolers
2.5.4.1 Air‐Cooled Charge Air Coolers
2.5.4.2 Water‐Cooled Charge Air Coolers
2.6 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) Cooling
2.6.1 Purpose of EGR and EGR Cooling
2.6.2 EGR Working Principle
2.6.3 Exhaust Gas Recirculation Architectures
2.6.3.1 High‐Pressure EGR
2.6.3.2 Low‐Pressure EGR
2.6.4 Technologies of Exhaust Gas Recirculation Coolers (EGRC)
2.6.4 Additional Data
2.6.4 Solution
2.7 Front‐End Module
2.7.1 Purpose of the Front‐End Module
2.7.2 Working Principle of the Front‐End Module
2.7.2.1 Heat Exchangers Configuration
2.7.2.2 Aeraulics
2.7.2 Solution
2.7.2 Results
2.7.3 Technologies of Components in the Front‐End Module
2.7.3.1 Fan System
2.7.3.2 Active Grille Shutters
2.8 Engine Waste Heat Recovery
2.8.1 Exhaust Heat Recovery System (EHRS)
2.8.2 (Organic) Rankine Cycle Power Systems
2.8.2 Solution
2.8.2 Results (for question 1 and 2)
2.8.3 Other Investigated Technologies
References
Chapter 3 Cabin Climate Control
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Thermal Comfort
3.2.1 Definition of Thermal Comfort
3.2.2 Human Thermo‐Physiology
3.2.2.1 Homeothermy
3.2.2.2 Body Energy Balance
3.2.2.3 Skin Sensible Losses
3.2.2.4 Skin Latent Losses
3.2.2.5 Respiratory Losses
3.2.2.6 Criteria to Meet to Achieve Thermal Comfort
3.2.3 Description of Vehicle Indoor Climate
3.2.3.1 Mean Radiant Temperature
3.2.3.2 Operative Temperature
3.2.3.3 Equivalent Temperature
3.2.3.4 Local Equivalent Temperature
3.2.3.5 Whole Body Equivalent Temperature
3.2.3.6 Control of Vehicle Indoor Climate
3.2.3.7 Transient Evolution of the Indoor Climate
3.2.3.8 Air Stratification
3.2.4 Evaluation of Thermal Comfort
3.2.4.1 PMV Approach
3.2.4.2 Human Subject Trials
3.3 Cabin Thermal Loads
3.3.1 Outdoor Climate
3.3.1.1 Solar Radiation
3.3.1.2 Atmospheric Radiation
3.3.2 Energy Transfer Mechanisms Involved in a Vehicle Cabin
3.3.3 Heat Transfer Through the Cabin Body
3.3.3.1 Heat Transfers at the Cabin Body Outdoor Surface
3.3.3.2 Heat Transfer and Storage Through the Cabin Body Materials
3.3.3.3 Heat Transfers at the Cabin Body Indoor Surface
3.3.3.4 Heat Transfer Through the Cabin Body in the Steady‐State Regime
3.3.4 Heat Transfer Through the Glazing
3.3.4.1 Optical Properties of Glazing
3.3.4.2 Advanced Glazing Technologies
3.3.5 Ventilation
3.3.6 Infiltration
3.3.7 Internal Gains
3.3.7.1 Occupants
3.3.7.2 Other Internal Gains
3.3.8 Other Energy Transfer Mechanisms
3.3.9 Lumped Modeling Approach
3.3.9.1 Energy Balance on the Cabin Body
3.3.9.2 Energy Balance on the Cabin Glazing
3.3.9.3 Energy Balance on the Cabin Internal Masses
3.3.9.4 Mass and Energy Balances on the Cabin Air, Water, and CO2
3.4 Distribution of Thermal Energy Through the Cabin
3.4.1 HVAC Unit Components and Working Principle
3.4.2 Cabin Air Recirculation
3.4.3 HVAC Unit Operating Modes
3.4.3.1 Ventilation
3.4.3.2 Cooling
3.4.3.3 Heating
3.4.3.4 Demisting and Defrosting
3.4.3.5 Ventilation and Heating
3.4.3.6 Temperature and Flow Rate of the Air Flow Pulsed by the HVAC Unit
3.4.4 Cabin Air Quality
3.5 Production of Cooling Capacity
3.5.1 Working Principle of a Vapor‐Compression Refrigerator
3.5.1.1 Evaporator
3.5.1.2 Compressor
3.5.1.3 Condenser
3.5.1.4 Throttling Device
3.5.2 Integration of the Air‐Conditioning Loop into the Vehicle
3.5.3 Compressor
3.5.3.1 Mechanical Versus Electrical Compressors
3.5.3.2 Compressor Capacity
3.5.3.3 Piston Compressors
3.5.3.4 Sliding Vane Compressors
3.5.3.5 Scroll Compressors
3.5.3.6 Expression of the Compressor Displaced Mass Flow Rate
3.5.3.7 Expression of the Compressor Power
3.5.3.8 Oil Circulation Ratio
3.5.4 Evaporator
3.5.4.1 Air‐Heated Evaporators
3.5.4.2 Water‐Heated Evaporators (“Chillers”)
3.5.5 Condenser
3.5.5.1 Air‐Cooled Condensers
3.5.5.2 Water‐Cooled Condensers
3.5.6 Throttling Device
3.5.6.1 Thermostatic Expansion Valve (TXV)
3.5.6.2 Electronic Expansion Valve (EXV)
3.5.6.3 Orifice Tube (OT)
3.5.7 Receiver, Accumulator, Drier, and Filter
3.5.7.1 In‐line Receiver
3.5.7.2 Integrated Receiver
3.5.7.3 Accumulator
3.5.8 Internal Heat Exchanger
3.5.9 R744 (CO2) as Working Fluid
3.5.9.1 Internal Heat Exchanger with R744
3.5.9.2 Gas Cooler
3.5.9.3 R744 Versus R1234yf
3.5.10 Cabin Climate Control
3.5.10.1 A/C Loop Pressure and Temperature Switches/Sensors
3.5.10.2 Control of the A/C Loop Cooling Capacity
3.5.10.3 Optimization of the Condenser Fan Speed
3.5.11 Interaction Between the Major Components of the A/C Loop
3.6 Production of Heating Capacity
3.6.1 Heating with the Engine Coolant Loop
3.6.2 PTC Heaters
3.6.3 Heat Pump Systems
3.7 Local Cooling and Heating Systems
3.7.1 Heated, Cooled, and Ventilated Seats
3.7.1.1 Heated Seat with an Electric Mat
3.7.1.2 Seat with Peltier Cells
3.7.1.3 Ventilated Seat
3.7.2 Heated Steering Wheel
3.7.3 Electric Radiant Panels
3.7.4 Head Cooling
3.8 Thermal Energy Storage
3.8.1 Sensible Thermal Energy Storage
3.8.2 Latent Thermal Energy Storage
3.8.2.1 Phase Change Materials and Ice
3.8.2.2 Evaporator with Latent Thermal Energy Storage
3.8.3 Sorption Energy Storage
3.8.4 Thermal Insulation
3.8.5 Energy Density
References
Chapter 4 Thermal Energy Management in Hybrid and Electric Vehicles
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Classification of Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles
4.2.1 Electric Vehicles
4.2.1.1 Battery Electric Vehicles
4.2.1.2 Integration of EVs in Electricity Grids
4.2.1.3 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles
4.2.1 Solution
4.2.1 Results
4.2.2 Hybrid Electric Vehicles
4.2.2.1 Classification According to the Degree of Hybridization
4.2.2.2 Powertrain Architectures
4.3 Cabin Thermal Control in HEVS and EVs
4.3.1 Technical Challenges Associated with Cabin Thermal Control in Electrified Vehicles
4.3.1.1 Vehicles with Stop & Start Functions
4.3.1.2 Vehicles with Regenerative Braking
4.3.1.3 Vehicles with Electric Driving Mode
4.3.2 Heat Pump Systems
4.3.2.1 Air‐to‐Air Heat Pumps
4.3.2.2 Air‐to‐Water Heat Pumps
4.3.2.3 Water‐to‐Air Heat Pumps
4.3.2.4 Water‐to‐Water Heat Pumps
4.3.2.5 Back‐Up Electric Resistance Heating System
4.3.3 Local Heating Systems
4.3.4 Thermal Energy Storage
4.4 Battery Thermal Management (BTM)
4.4.1 Description of a Battery
4.4.1.1 Battery Pack, Modules and Cells
4.4.1.2 Operating Principle of Lithium‐Ion Battery Cells
4.4.1.3 Battery Technical Characteristics
4.4.1.4 State of Charge (SOC)
4.4.2 Battery Charging
4.4.3 Battery Aging
4.4.3.1 Calendar and Cycling Aging
4.4.3.2 State of Health (SOH)
4.4.4 Battery Management System (BMS)
4.4.5 Energy Balance Across a Battery Cell
4.4.5.1 Heat Generation inside the Cell
4.4.5.2 Heat Exchange with the Ambient and with the Heat Transfer Fluid of the BTMS
4.4.6 Undesired Effects of Battery Operating Temperature
4.4.6.1 Cell Temperature Level
4.4.6.2 Battery Temperature Gradient
4.4.6.3 Battery Thermal Inertia
4.4.7 Battery Thermal Management Systems (BTMS)
4.4.7.1 Air‐Based Systems
4.4.7.2 Liquid‐Based Systems
4.4.7.3 Refrigerant‐Based Systems
4.4.7.4 Dielectric Fluid‐Based System
4.4.7.5 Mutual Impact of Cabin Climate Control and BTM
4.4.7.6 Coupling of Battery Modules on Coolant/Refrigerant Plates
4.4.7.7 Comparison between Air Cooling and Glycol‐Water Cooling Solutions
4.4.7.8 PCM and Other Technologies
4.5 E‐Motor and Power Electronics Cooling
4.5.1 Power Electronics
4.5.2 Electric Motor (e‐Motor)
4.5.2.1 Types of Electric Motors
4.5.2.2 Losses in Electric Motors
4.5.2.3 Operating Temperature Range of e‐Motors
4.5.2.4 E‐Motor Cooling System
4.5.3 Combined e‐Motor and Power Electronics Thermal Management
4.6 Overall Thermal Energy Management of Electrified Vehicles
4.6.1 Fluids Loops and their Connections
4.6.2 Front‐End Module Configuration
4.6.3 Pumps and Fan‐Motor Assembly
References
Index
EULA