The Uniqueness of Chinese Civilization in World History

Preface
About This Book
Contents
About the Author
Part I
1 Chinese Civilization in World History
1.1 Definition
1.2 Usual Measures of Success for a Civilization
1.2.1 Population
1.2.2 Continuity
1.2.3 Technology
1.2.4 Basic Economic Standards
1.2.5 Effectiveness of Governmental Mechanisms
1.2.6 Size of Cities
1.2.7 Degrees of Commercialization
1.3 Direct Comparisons Between China and Europe
1.3.1 Marco Polo
1.3.2 Zheng He
1.4 Change in Sino-European Situation
1.5 A Rise or a Return?
1.6 Size Variations of Chinese Empires
2 Geographic Factors
2.1 Geological Factors
2.1.1 Collision of Indian Subcontinent and East Asian Continent
2.1.2 Monsoon Effect
2.2 Han People and the Northern Peoples
2.2.1 The Nomads
2.2.2 Cultural Exchanges
2.2.3 Cultural Divisions
2.3 Rhythmic Explosions from the Nomadic Peoples
2.3.1 Xiongnu
2.3.2 Turkic Peoples
2.3.3 Mongols
2.3.4 Ottomans
2.4 Major Geographic Feature: Isolation
2.4.1 Limited Cultural Influences from the Outside
2.4.2 Consequences of Isolation
2.5 North-South Chief Differences
3 Chinese Language
3.1 Chinese as a Written Language
3.1.1 Chinese Language and Chinese Civilization
3.1.2 Nature of the Written Language
3.2 Chinese Language Not Just Han
3.3 Principles of Characters’ Construction
3.4 Great Reverence to Script
3.4.1 Non-Development of Oratory
3.4.2 Calligraphy
3.5 Chinese as a Spoken Language
3.5.1 A Monosyllabic, Uninflected Language
3.5.2 A Highly Evolved Language
3.5.3 Syllable Poverty
3.6 Chinese Language Romanization
3.6.1 Romanization in the Earliest Period
3.6.2 Three Most Prominent Systems of Romanizing
3.6.3 Wade-Giles System
3.7 Dialects
3.7.1 Most Distinct Dialects
3.7.2 Identical Syntactical Structures
3.7.3 Horizontal and Vertical Differences
4 Rise of Classical Thought
4.1 “Axial Age”
4.2 Cultural Matrix
4.2.1 Shang Religion
4.2.2 The Cosmology of Book of Changes
4.3 Generalizations on Classical Thought
4.3.1 Tendency Toward Monism
4.3.2 Interdependence
4.3.3 Eclecticism and Synthesis
4.3.4 Chronological Primitivism
5 Confucianism
5.1 A Note on the Term Confucianism
5.2 Confucius and The Analects
5.2.1 Origin of the Term “Confucianism” in the West
5.2.2 The Analects
5.2.3 Basic Concepts in The Analects
5.3 Mencius
5.3.1 Mencius’ Message: You Will Do Well by Doing Right
5.3.2 Other Principles in The Mencius
5.3.3 Mencius vs. Xunzi: A Debate on Human Nature
5.4 Comparisons Between Confucius and Mencius
5.4.1 Enthusiasm About the Moral Enterprise
5.4.2 Hierarchy and Gradations
5.4.3 Egalitarianism
5.4.4 Duty of the Elite Toward Society
6 Daoism and Other Schools of Thought
6.1 Daoism
6.1.1 Daodejing
6.1.2 Social Economic Background of Daoism’s Emergence
6.1.3 Daoism and the Chinese Arts
6.1.4 The Zhuangzi
6.1.5 Daoist Philosophy Related to Daoism the Folk Religion?
6.2 Legalism
6.2.1 Social Engineers
6.2.2 Legalists’ Critique of Confucian Thought
6.2.3 Legalism and Rulership
6.2.4 Meritocracy
6.3 Mozi
6.3.1 Mozi’s Central Ideas
6.3.2 Language Feature: Structured Arguments
6.4 Conclusion
7 Buddhism in China
7.1 Widespread of Buddhism
7.2 The Origin of Buddhism
7.3 Mahayana
7.3.1 What Is Mahayana?
7.3.2 Emergence of Bodhisattva
7.3.3 Emergence of Clergy
7.3.4 Schools of Mahayana
7.4 The Attack on Buddhism
7.5 The Analectic Nature of Chinese Thought
8 Recurrent Themes in Chinese Civilization
8.1 Mandate of Heaven
8.1.1 Development of the Concept of Tian
8.1.2 Tian and Mandate of Heaven
8.1.3 The Will of Heaven and the Will of the Masses
8.2 Dynastic Cycle
8.2.1 Interior Aspect
8.2.2 Exterior Aspect
8.3 Popular Rebellion
8.4 Barbarians
8.4.1 Acculturation
8.4.2 The Manchus
8.5 The Role of the Emperor
8.6 Tribute System
8.7 Familialism
8.8 The Position of Women
8.8.1 Patrilineal Concept of the Family
8.8.2 Women with Power
8.8.3 The Reason for Women’s Inferior Role
8.8.4 Foot-Binding
8.8.5 The Relationship Between Daughter-In-Law and Mother-In-Law
8.9 Conclusion
9 Changes Over Two Millennia
9.1 Historiographical Approach
9.2 Socio-Economic Transformation
9.3 Population
9.3.1 Cycle of Population Changes
9.3.2 Population Explosion
9.4 Technology
9.5 Commercial Activity
9.6 Leveling of Society
9.6.1 Civil Service Examination System
9.6.2 Disappearance of Zhuangyuan
9.7 Statutization of the Li
9.8 The Status of Women
9.9 Establishment of an Orthodoxy
10 Late Imperial State and Society (Qing)
10.1 Bureaucracy and Gentry
10.1.1 The Elite and Political Power
10.1.2 The Elite and Wealth
10.1.3 The Elite and Official Ideology
10.1.4 The Elite and the State
10.2 Administrative System in the Qing
10.2.1 In the Capital
10.2.2 Outside the Capital
10.3 Features of Chinese Bureaucracy
10.3.1 Insufficient Salary
10.3.2 Morally Superior
10.3.3 Punishable for Mistakes
10.3.4 Corruption
10.4 Bureaucracy in Nineteenth Century
10.5 Class Base of Chinese Bureaucracy
10.5.1 Feudal Bureaucracy?
10.5.2 Oriental Despotism?
10.5.3 Gentry-Based Elite?
11 Stratification of Late Imperial Society
11.1 Chinese Society Not a Feudal Society
11.2 Stratification Related to Roles
11.2.1 Manual Labor vs. Mental Labor
11.2.2 Scholars, Farmers, Artisans and Merchants/Businessmen
11.3 Basic Criteria of Stratification
11.3.1 Knowledge/Skill/Education
11.3.2 Responsibility
11.3.3 Property/Wealth
11.3.4 Participation in the Li and Lifestyle
11.3.5 Age/Generation
Part II
12 Sino-European Relations
12.1 From Western Europe to East Asia Contact
12.2 Rise of Nation-State in Western Europe
12.2.1 Portuguese Expansion
12.2.2 The Netherlands’ Expansion
12.2.3 England
12.3 Canton System
12.4 British Diplomatic Missions to China
12.4.1 Macartney’s Mission
12.4.2 Amherst Mission
12.5 Opium
12.5.1 Opium’s Spread in China
12.5.2 Why Opium Spreads so Rapidly?
12.5.3 Effect of Opium Trade on Chinese Society
12.6 Opium War
12.6.1 Two Events Leading to the Opium War
12.6.2 Course of the War
12.6.3 Unequal Treaties
12.6.4 Assessment of the War
13 Background of the Nineteenth-Century Rebellion
13.1 Orthodoxy and Heterodoxy in Chinese Society
13.1.1 Elite Religion
13.1.2 Folk Religion
13.1.3 Conflict Between Orthodoxy and Heterodoxy
13.2 Types and Modes of Secret Societies
13.2.1 Southern Triads
13.2.2 Northern Tradition
13.3 Dynastic Decline
13.3.1 Population Explosion
13.3.2 Traditional Factors of Decline
13.3.3 Decay of Military Force
13.3.4 Failure of Mechanisms
13.3.5 No Technological Advances
13.3.6 No Cultural Advances
14 The Taiping Rebellion
14.1 The Mid-Nineteenth-Century Rebellions
14.1.1 Four Areas of Rebellion
14.1.2 Situation of South China
14.2 The Hakkas
14.3 The Taiping Rebellion
14.3.1 Hong Xiuquan
14.3.2 Open Rebellion
14.3.3 Military Successes
14.3.4 The Taiping Ideology
14.4 The Suppression
14.4.1 Zeng Guofan
14.4.2 Li Hongzhang
14.4.3 Western Involvement
14.5 Reasons for Taiping Failure
14.5.1 Administrative Failure
14.5.2 Strategic Failure
14.5.3 Limited Popular Support
14.6 Historical Interpretations of the Taipings
15 Foreign Affairs Movement
15.1 Origin and Nature of this Movement
15.2 Periodization of Industrialization
15.3 Specifics of Foreign Affairs Movement
15.3.1 Innovations Related to Industrialization
15.3.2 Two Phases of Industrialization
15.4 “Official Supervision, Merchant Management” System
15.4.1 Traditional Bureaucratic Management
15.4.2 Lack of Initiative
15.4.3 Official Exactions
15.4.4 Monopoly Rights
15.4.5 Lack of Capital
15.5 General Obstacles to Chinese Industrialization
15.5.1 Foreign Economic Pressure
15.5.2 Growing Impotence of the Imperial Government
15.5.3 Inadequate Accumulation of Capital
15.5.4 Technological Backwardness
15.6 Conclusion
16 Chinese Foreign Relations 1857–1895
16.1 Patterns of Foreign Relations 1860–1895
16.2 Old Patterns of Diplomatic Relations Crumble
16.2.1 Japanese Seizure of the Liuqiu Islands
16.2.2 Ili Valley Crisis
16.2.3 Sino-French War
16.2.4 The Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895
17 The Transitional Generation
17.1 The Phenomenon of Rationalization
17.1.1 Different Civilizations, Identical Formula
17.1.2 Uniqueness of Chinese Rationalization
17.2 Kang Youwei
17.2.1 Kang’s Writings
17.2.2 Kang’s Career
17.2.3 The Hundred Days Reform
17.2.4 Failure of the Reforms
17.3 Tan Sitong and His on Ren
17.3.1 Tan’s Interpretation of Ren
17.3.2 Sex—The Real Shocker
17.3.3 Individualism
17.4 Yan Fu
17.4.1 Yan Fu’s Career
17.4.2 Translations and Thoughts
17.5 Liang Qichao
17.5.1 Constitutional Movement
17.5.2 “People Made New”
17.5.3 Evolutionism
17.5.4 Chinese Spiritualism and Western Materialism
18 The Boxers
18.1 Why Important?
18.2 The Nature of the Boxers
18.3 Causes
18.3.1 Unusual Climatic Conditions
18.3.2 Hostility Toward Foreigners
18.4 The Government’s Attitude
18.5 The Progression of the Boxer Events in Beijing
18.6 Repercussions of the Boxer Movement
19 Revolutionary Intellectuals 1898–1911
19.1 Returned Students
19.1.1 Strong Nationalist Consciousness
19.1.2 The Idea of Evolution
19.1.3 Provincial Attachments
19.2 Sun Yat-Sen
19.2.1 Family Background
19.2.2 Xingzhonghui
19.2.3 Style of Leadership
19.2.4 Three Principles of the People
19.2.5 Tongmenghui
19.3 The Wuchang Uprising
19.4 Nature of the Revolution and the Early Republic
19.4.1 What Hadn’t Changed
19.4.2 What Had Changed
19.5 Yuan’s Dictatorship
19.6 The Warlord Phenomenon
19.6.1 Extreme Variation
19.6.2 An Era of Disorder
19.6.3 More Complex Situation
19.6.4 Generalizations
20 The May Fourth Movement
20.1 The May Fourth Incident
20.2 Historical Significance
20.2.1 The Founding of the CPC
20.2.2 Arrival of Marxism
20.2.3 Anti-Traditionalism
20.2.4 New Nationalism
20.2.5 Emphasis on Youth
20.3 Historical Factors
20.3.1 Overseas Study and Returned Students
20.3.2 Modern Schools and Students
20.3.3 Psychological Effect of the Republican Revolution
20.4 Figures in May Fourth—New Culture
20.4.1 Chen Duxiu
20.4.2 Hu Shi
20.4.3 Cai Yuanpei
20.4.4 Li Dazhao
20.4.5 Liang Shuming
20.5 Issues in the May Fourth Era
20.5.1 The Cultures Controversy
20.5.2 Split Between Liberals and Marxists
20.5.3 Founding of the CPC
20.6 New Urban Culture
20.6.1 Life Style and Social Values
20.6.2 Easier Sexual Ways
20.6.3 Rise of Public Press
20.7 Conservative Response
21 The New Literature
21.1 Why New?
21.1.1 Medium
21.1.2 Message
21.2 Literary Scene in the 1920s and 1930s
21.3 Lu Xun
21.3.1 Life
21.3.2 Thought
21.3.3 Significant Works
21.3.4 Attitude Toward Social Classes
21.4 Literary Currents in the 1920s and 1930s
21.4.1 The Literary Society
21.4.2 Creation Society
21.5 Kuomintang “White Terror” and the Literary World
22 The Political Scene in 1923–1927
22.1 General Picture
22.2 KMT Reorganization
22.2.1 Canton Alliance
22.2.2 Leninist-Style Party
22.3 CPC’s Development
22.3.1 Organizing Strikes in Cities
22.3.2 The First CPC-KMT United Front
22.4 Northern Expedition
22.4.1 Rise of Chiang Kai-shek
22.4.2 Decision for the Northern Expedition
22.4.3 Advance North
22.5 Break Between KMT and CPC
22.5.1 Birth of Rural Strategy
22.5.2 Purge of the CPC
22.5.3 Red Army
22.5.4 Establishment of Base Area
22.6 Foundation of Nanjing Government
23 The Nanjing Decade
23.1 Chiang Kai-shek’s Attitude Toward Japan
23.1.1 First Clear Out the Enemies Within, Then Resist Foreign Aggression
23.1.2 Japan’s Furthered Aggression
23.1.3 Chiang’s Response to Japanese Aggression
23.1.4 Chiang’s Strategy
23.2 Weaknesses of the Nanjing Regime
23.2.1 Regional Nature of Nanjing Regime
23.2.2 Loose Disparate Membership and the KMT’s Non-Revolutionary Nature
23.2.3 Rural Sector
23.2.4 Mass Organizations and Political Participation
23.2.5 Factionalism
23.2.6 Political Repression
23.3 Achievements of the Nanjing Regime
23.3.1 Fiscal, Legal, Educational Modernization
23.3.2 Urban Modernization
23.4 Class Base of KMT
24 The War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression
24.1 The Xi’an Incident
24.2 Expansion of Japanese Control 1936–1939
24.2.1 Barbaric Acts by the Japanese in Nanjing and Other Places
24.2.2 KMT’s Withdraw Westward
24.2.3 Chiang Kai-shek Becomes a National Symbol
24.2.4 Withdrawal of Provincial Governments
24.3 Stalemate 1940–1944
24.3.1 A Joke of Telling Significance
24.3.2 Wang Jingwei’s Puppet Regime
24.3.3 Rapid Development of CPC
24.3.4 Ongoing Civil War
24.3.5 Liang Shuming and Democratic League
24.4 End of the War
24.4.1 America’s Role
24.4.2 Japan’s Surrender
24.4.3 America’s Ideal of a Stable China