The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking

Preface......Page 5
Outline of the Handbook......Page 7
References......Page 8
Acknowledgments......Page 9
Contents......Page 11
Editors Biography......Page 21
Contributors......Page 23
Part I: Legacies of Slavery and Human Trafficking......Page 30
1 Understanding Historical Slavery, Its Legacies, and Its Lessons for Combating Modern-Day Slavery and Human Trafficking......Page 31
Introduction......Page 32
A Brief History of Transatlantic Slavery......Page 33
The Reparations Debate......Page 37
Modern-Day Slavery and Abolitionism......Page 39
References......Page 42
Introduction......Page 47
Historical Background......Page 48
Part 1: Tacky´s Rebellion......Page 49
Part 2: The Baptist War......Page 53
Conclusion......Page 59
References......Page 60
From the British National Archives in Kew, London......Page 61
3 Concepts of Slavery in the United States 1865-1914......Page 63
Slavery Within the United States: Coerced Labor Continued and the Nation Fails to Understand Its Past......Page 66
Antislavery Imperialism: The Influence of the International Context......Page 68
Racism Evolving: Othering the Slave, Othering the Slave Owner......Page 71
Slavery: White Slavery and Gender - A New Phenomenon?......Page 74
Conclusion......Page 76
References......Page 77
4 When Freeing the Slaves Was Illegal: ``Reverse-Trafficking´´ and the Unholy, Unruly Rule of Law......Page 79
Introduction......Page 80
A Most ``Peculiar Institution´´: A Genealogy of Slaveholder Law......Page 82
Enter the Underground Railroad......Page 85
Sidestepping Blame......Page 87
The Problem with Heroes......Page 89
In Conclusion: Discomforting Parallels and Unintended Consequences......Page 91
References......Page 92
5 International Legislation on White Slavery and Anti-trafficking in the Early Twentieth Century......Page 95
Introduction......Page 96
The Vigilance Movement and the Origins of White Slavery Accords......Page 97
International Agreement for the Suppression of the ``White Slave Traffic´´ and Its Enforcement......Page 98
The International Convention for the Suppression of the White Slave Traffic 1910......Page 100
De-racializing the White Slave Trade: The League of Nations´ Action on Trafficking......Page 101
International Law After 1921: Toward Abolitionism......Page 103
Conclusion......Page 104
References......Page 105
6 Historical Evolution of the International Legal Responses to the Trafficking of Children: A Critique......Page 107
Introduction......Page 108
Childhood and Children´s Rights......Page 109
The International Legal Regulation of ``White Slavery´´......Page 110
International Conference on Traffic in Women and Children 1921......Page 111
The International Convention for the Suppression of Traffic in Women and Children 1921......Page 113
The League of Nations Registry Files 1919-1927......Page 114
Traffic in Women and Children Summary of Annual Reports 1927 and 1928: State Responses to Question 8......Page 116
The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) 1989......Page 117
Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography (OPSC) 2000......Page 119
Optional Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and Children 2000......Page 120
Children and the Trafficking Protocol......Page 121
Conclusion......Page 122
References......Page 123
7 Human Trafficking in Canada as a Historical Continuation of the 1980s and 1990s Panics over Youth in Sex Trade......Page 124
Introduction......Page 125
Historical Predecessors: ``White Slavery´´ and Concerns over Youth in Sex Work......Page 126
Policing Trafficking......Page 128
Protection and Criminalization......Page 130
Conclusion......Page 136
References......Page 137
Media......Page 139
8 Portugal and Human Trafficking (1822-2018)......Page 141
A Rhetoric of Reaction and Colonial Project......Page 143
White Slave Trade Against Black Slave Trade?......Page 145
Protect Emigrants or Curtail the Right of Movement?......Page 147
Emigration as a Threat......Page 148
The Paths of Clandestine Emigration......Page 149
Smoke and Mirrors......Page 150
Epilogue: Human Trafficking, Democracy, and Europeanization......Page 152
References......Page 155
9 The Nebulous Definition of Slavery: Legal Versus Sociological Definitions of Slavery......Page 157
The International Law on Slavery......Page 158
The Legal Definition of Slavery Included in the 1926 Slavery Convention......Page 160
The Blurred Boundaries Between the Legal Definitions of Slavery, the Practices Similar to Slavery, Servitude, and Forced Labor......Page 163
The Sociological Definitions of Slavery......Page 166
Conclusion......Page 168
References......Page 169
Part II: Explanations and Methods of Inquiry......Page 171
10 Measuring the Nature and Prevalence of Human Trafficking......Page 172
Challenges to Measuring Trafficking in Persons......Page 173
Estimation Strategies Using Open-Source Information and Capture-Recapture Principles......Page 175
Multiple System Estimation......Page 177
Local Surveys or Field Observations......Page 178
Using Online Domain Data and Network Information to Measure Human Trafficking......Page 180
The Way Forward in Measuring Human Trafficking?......Page 182
References......Page 184
11 The UNODC Global Report on Trafficking in Persons: An Aspirational Tool with Great Potential......Page 188
Background on UNODC Global Report on Human Trafficking......Page 189
Strengths......Page 190
Detected Cases as a Unit of Analysis......Page 191
Self-Reporting Bias......Page 192
Minimizing the Effects of Self-Reporting Bias......Page 194
Non-survey Data Supplements......Page 195
Purpose Statement......Page 196
Potential for Dual Functionality......Page 197
Conclusion......Page 198
References......Page 199
Further Reading......Page 200
12 Ethical Considerations for Studying Human Trafficking......Page 202
Methods and Research Design......Page 203
Negotiating Access......Page 206
The Researcher´s Position......Page 210
Data Collection......Page 212
Representation......Page 216
References......Page 217
13 Developing a Universal Standard of Care for Victims of Trafficking Under the Guiding Principles of Non-state Torture......Page 220
International Human Rights Law Regarding Torture......Page 221
The Nexus of Human Trafficking and Torture: Tactics of Coercion, Abuse, and Torture Used by Traffickers......Page 223
Symptomology of Trafficking and Torture Observed in Its Victims......Page 225
Optimizing Care for Victims of Trafficking: Utilizing Field-Based Standards and Guiding Principles......Page 227
References......Page 229
Further Reading......Page 230
14 Genealogies of Slavery......Page 231
Introduction......Page 232
Genealogy......Page 234
Case Law and Slavery Discourses......Page 237
Siliadin v. France, No. 73316/01, ECtHR 2005-VII......Page 238
Rantsev v. Cyprus and Russia, No. 25965/04, ECtHR 2010......Page 240
L.E. v. Greece, No. 71545/12, ECtHR 2016......Page 241
SDGs and Slavery Discourses......Page 243
The UK, Slavery, and the SDGs......Page 245
Conclusion......Page 246
References......Page 247
Case Law......Page 249
15 ``No More Interviews Please´´: Experiences of Trafficking Survivors in Nepal......Page 250
Introduction/Context......Page 251
Praxis: Participatory Action Inquiry......Page 252
Reintegration of Trafficking Survivors......Page 253
Gender Oppression......Page 255
Systemic Enablers of Oppressions......Page 256
Research, Publications, and the Media......Page 257
Rehabilitative Centers......Page 260
Stigmatization Prevention......Page 261
Unpacking and Reconceptualizing Successful Reintegration......Page 262
Conclusion......Page 264
References......Page 266
16 A Comprehensive Gender Framework to Evaluate Anti-trafficking Policies and Programs......Page 269
Introduction......Page 270
The USDOS TIP Report and Measurement of National Anti-trafficking Efforts......Page 271
Criticisms Around the TIP Report......Page 274
Descriptions of Multilayer Framework to Evaluate Anti-trafficking Policies and Programs......Page 276
Evaluation of the First P: Prevention of Trafficking Under the Policy......Page 278
Evaluation of the Second P: Protection of Trafficking Victims......Page 279
Evaluation of the Third P: Prosecution of Traffickers......Page 280
Evaluation of the Fourth P: Prosecution of Traffickers......Page 281
Section 2: The Multi-pillar Gender-Sensitive Evaluation of Anti-trafficking Policies and Programs......Page 283
Section 3: Gender Construction Analysis of Policies and Programs......Page 286
Conclusion......Page 287
References......Page 288
17 Establishing the Constituent Elements of Trafficking in Persons: Conceptualizing ``Transnationality´´ and ``Involvement by .........Page 292
Introduction......Page 293
The Purpose of Clarification......Page 294
The Codification of Transnational (Organized) Crimes Under International Law......Page 295
Interpretational Tension and Identifying the Definitional Contours of Trafficking in Persons......Page 298
An Interpretational Way Forward?......Page 301
References......Page 302
Part III: Types of Trafficking in Human Beings......Page 305
18 The Challenge of Addressing Both Forced Labor and Sexual Exploitation......Page 306
Introduction......Page 307
Practical Insights on the Long-Lasting Definitional Debates Around Trafficking......Page 308
Addressing Different Types of Trafficking: Need for More Divergence or Convergence?......Page 310
Labor Trafficking: Still Under-detected? Or Rather Called by Another Name?......Page 311
Including Labor Trafficking Means Working with ``New´´ Actors......Page 312
Between National and International Cases of Trafficking......Page 314
The Delicate Collaboration with Law Enforcement for Undocumented Migrants......Page 315
The Gender Bias......Page 316
Combined Efforts to Tackle Multiple Forms of Trafficking: What Are the Advantages, Then?......Page 317
Conclusion......Page 318
References......Page 319
19 Telling Victims from Criminals: Human Trafficking for the Purposes of Criminal Exploitation......Page 322
Introduction: Broadening the Concept of Human Trafficking......Page 323
Forced Criminality as a Purpose of Human Trafficking......Page 324
Drug Crimes......Page 326
Property Crimes......Page 327
Violent Crimes......Page 328
Specific Difficulties Related to Victim Identification......Page 329
Lack of Victims´ Self-Identification......Page 330
Lack of Trust in the Police......Page 331
Non-punishment of Victims of Human Trafficking for the Purposes of Forced Criminality......Page 332
Conclusion......Page 335
References......Page 336
20 Trafficking of Human Beings for Organ (Cells and Tissue) Removal......Page 338
Organ (Cells and Tissue) Removal - An Exploitative Form of Trafficking of Human Beings (THB)......Page 339
United Nations Convention......Page 340
European Union Directive......Page 341
Limited Availability of Data......Page 342
Differentiating ``Human Trafficking for the Purpose of Organ Removal´´ from ``Organ Trafficking´´......Page 343
Typical Cases of Living Organ Donation......Page 344
Reported Cases of Organ Removal from the Deceased......Page 345
The Role of Medical Professionals and the Involvement of Clinics......Page 346
Recipients as Offenders?......Page 347
Poorly Educated Victims - The Problem of Informed Consent......Page 348
The Challenges in Trying to Identify the Victims......Page 349
Conclusions: Strategies for Preventing Human Trafficking for the Purpose of Organ Removal......Page 350
Excursus: Reasons for Organ Shortages......Page 351
Increasing Identification Rate......Page 352
References......Page 353
Legal Frameworks......Page 355
21 Defining Child Trafficking for Labor Exploitation, Forced Child Labor, and Child Labor......Page 357
Introduction......Page 358
Child Work......Page 359
Child Labor......Page 360
Forced Child Labor......Page 363
Child Trafficking for Labor Exploitation......Page 364
References......Page 367
22 Domestic Sex Trafficking of Children......Page 370
Children at Risk for Being Trafficked......Page 373
Poverty......Page 374
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer (LGBTQ) Youth......Page 375
Sex and Gender......Page 376
Maltreatment......Page 377
Forms of Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking......Page 378
Gang-Controlled Trafficking......Page 379
Family-Controlled Trafficking......Page 380
Assisting Youth in Exiting the Life......Page 381
Services for Survivors......Page 382
Conclusion......Page 383
References......Page 384
23 The Spoiled Supply Chain of Child Labor......Page 388
Children: A Vulnerable Population for Slave Labor in Western Africa......Page 389
Life on the Cocoa Plantation......Page 391
Supply and Demand......Page 392
Nestlé´s Creating Shared Values......Page 393
Creating Shared Values and Child Labor Speculations......Page 394
Solutions for the Cocoa Industry......Page 396
Conclusion......Page 397
References......Page 398
24 Dynamics of Child Labor Trafficking in Southeast Asia: India......Page 400
Nature and Extent of Child Labor Trafficking Globally......Page 401
Children Trafficked for Sexual Exploitation......Page 402
Child Exploitation for Labor and Other Services......Page 403
Nature and Extent of Child Labor Trafficking in India......Page 404
International Laws and Conventions and Child Labor Trafficking in India......Page 405
Child Trafficking Inside and Outside of India......Page 407
Dynamics of Child Labor......Page 408
Social, Cultural, and Structural Dynamics......Page 410
Urbanization......Page 411
Suggestions for Control and Prevention......Page 412
Modification and Enforcement of Existing Child Protection Laws......Page 413
Efforts Should Begin at the Grassroot Level......Page 414
References......Page 415
25 Child Trafficking for Adoption Purposes: A Criminological Analysis of the Illegal Adoption Market......Page 418
The Basic Logic of Routine Activity Theory......Page 419
Demand Component......Page 420
Supply Component......Page 422
Social Control Component......Page 424
Criminogenic Asymmetries Between Demand and Source Countries......Page 427
Cycles of Abuse and Displacements Effects of Supply Reduction......Page 430
Conclusion......Page 431
References......Page 432
26 Trafficking and the Boko Haram Conflict: The Not So Good, the Bad, and the Outright Ugly......Page 435
Introduction......Page 436
Boko Haram......Page 437
Boko Haram and Trafficking......Page 438
Chibok Girls´ Abductions......Page 441
Dapchi Girls´ Abduction......Page 442
The Stigma Associated with Trafficking......Page 443
Female Suicide Bombers......Page 444
Importance of the Women Peace and Security Agenda in the Prevention of Trafficking......Page 445
Role of the Media and Trafficking......Page 446
Role of Female Hunters......Page 447
National Response to Trafficking......Page 448
Recommendations......Page 449
References......Page 450
27 Family Violence and Exploitation: Examining the Contours of Violence and Exploitation......Page 453
Introduction......Page 454
The Australian Legal and Policy Background: Migration Law, Trafficking, and Slavery Offences......Page 455
Case Studies......Page 457
Rahmina......Page 458
Achol......Page 460
Chalai......Page 461
Implications......Page 462
Conclusion......Page 464
References......Page 465
28 Sex Trafficking as Structural Gender-Based Violence: Overview and Trauma Implications......Page 467
Underlying Factors: Sexism and Gender-Based Violence......Page 468
Defining Sex Trafficking in the Context of the Commercial Sex Industry......Page 470
Risk Factors for Sex Trafficking......Page 471
Methods of Recruitment......Page 473
Methods of Control......Page 476
Mental Health-Based Implications: Post-traumatic Stress Disorder......Page 477
Summary......Page 479
References......Page 480
29 From the Street Corner to the Digital World: How the Digital Age Impacts Sex Trafficking Detection and Data Collection......Page 482
Victims......Page 483
Traffickers......Page 485
Technology Used for Trafficking......Page 487
Technology Used Against Trafficking......Page 490
Conclusion......Page 493
References......Page 494
30 The Onset of Global Violent Extremism and Its Nexus with Human Trafficking......Page 496
Introduction......Page 497
Trafficking Tactics Used by Violent Extremists......Page 498
Tactics of Trafficking, Exploitation, and Violence Used by Boko Haram......Page 499
Tactics of Exploitation and Violence Used by ISIS......Page 501
References......Page 502
31 The Protocol on Trafficking in Persons and Transplant Tourism......Page 504
References......Page 515
32 Child/Forced/Servile Marriages Human Trafficking......Page 517
Introduction......Page 518
What Is Marriage?......Page 519
What Is Child/Early Marriage?......Page 520
What Is ``Forced Marriage´´?......Page 521
Circumstances Under Which Marriage Can Be Classified as Forced Marriage: Servitude, Slavery, and/or Trafficking......Page 522
Marriages Without Clear and Full Consent of One or Both Individuals Getting Married......Page 523
Economic Incentives......Page 524
Extent and Prevalence of Forced Marriages: How Many?......Page 525
Forced Marriage and Human Trafficking......Page 527
Family Honor and Pride......Page 528
High Premium on Virginity......Page 529
Forced Marriages in the Context of Human Rights Violation......Page 530
Conclusion......Page 531
References......Page 532
33 Gang Sex Trafficking in the United States......Page 534
Gang Sex Trafficking: Definition......Page 535
Method......Page 536
Gang Sex Trafficking Patterns in the United States......Page 538
Pimp Control......Page 540
Money Use and Management......Page 542
US Gang Trafficking Network Types......Page 543
Other Types of Sex Trafficking in the United States......Page 545
China and Asia......Page 546
Dutch/The Netherlands......Page 547
Islamic State (ISIS)......Page 548
Implications for Practice......Page 549
References......Page 550
34 The Human Trafficking of Men: The Forgotten Few......Page 554
Introduction......Page 555
Defining and Contextualizing Adult Male Trafficking......Page 556
Identifying the Specific Types of Adult Male Trafficking......Page 560
Recording Adult Male Trafficking Internationally......Page 561
Southeast Asia......Page 562
Responding to the Needs of Adult Male Trafficking Victims......Page 564
Cross-References......Page 566
References......Page 567
Part IV: Human Trafficking and Response Mechanisms......Page 569
35 The Swedish Approach to Prostitution and Trafficking in Human Beings Through a Gender Equality Lens......Page 570
Introduction......Page 571
Sites of Application......Page 572
Aiding and Abetting......Page 573
Penalties for the Purchase of a Sexual Service......Page 574
Gender Equality Is a Core Element in the Struggle to Eliminate Prostitution and Trafficking in Human Beings in Sweden......Page 576
Background......Page 577
Who Are the Men that Purchase Sexual Services?......Page 578
The Offence that Prohibits the Purchase of a Sexual Service as a Deterrent......Page 579
Survivors and Victims of Prostitution and Trafficking in Human Beings for Sexual Purposes......Page 580
Capacity Within the Justice System to Investigate and Prosecute Prostitution and Human Trafficking Offences......Page 581
The Purchase of Sexual Services in Another Country Is Still Not Prohibited......Page 582
National Debate......Page 584
International Debate......Page 585
The Engagement of a Committed Women´s Movement......Page 586
The Removal of Market Incentives......Page 588
Ongoing Independent Monitoring......Page 589
Cross-References......Page 590
References......Page 591
Judgments......Page 592
36 Creating Sanctuary: Trauma-Informed Change for Survivors of Sex Trafficking and Commercial Sexual Exploitation......Page 594
Introduction......Page 595
Trauma......Page 596
A Trauma-Informed Approach......Page 597
Trauma-Informed Care: Service Approaches for Sex Trafficking Survivors......Page 598
The Sanctuary Model......Page 599
S.E.L.F.......Page 600
Toolkit......Page 602
Recognizing Reenactment: Rescripting......Page 603
The Parallel Process......Page 605
Creating a Trauma-Responsive System of Care......Page 608
References......Page 609
37 Exploring Human Rights in the Context of Enforcement-Based Anti-trafficking in Persons Responses......Page 612
Introduction......Page 613
International Agreements and Ineffective Protections: Human Trafficking as a Transnational Crime......Page 614
Additional Human Rights Protections Outside of the Protocol......Page 618
Critical Analysis of Frameworks of Protection in an Enforcement-Based Context......Page 622
Summary......Page 627
References......Page 628
38 UN Palermo Trafficking Protocol Eighteen Years On: A Critique......Page 633
The Adoption of the UN Trafficking Protocol as an Instrument of Transnational Criminal Law......Page 634
The Definition of Trafficking in Persons......Page 636
The (Thin) Line Between Trafficking in Persons and the Smuggling of Migrants......Page 644
The (Scarce) Protection of Trafficking Victims......Page 645
Conclusion......Page 647
Cross-References......Page 648
References......Page 649
39 Criminal Justice System Responses to Human Trafficking......Page 651
Criminalization Frameworks and Legal Responses......Page 652
Challenges to Police Identification of Human Trafficking......Page 654
New Mandate for Local Law Enforcement......Page 655
Training Gaps......Page 656
Corruption and Complicity with Traffickers......Page 657
Lack of Resources and Need for Multiagency Coordination......Page 658
The Need for Specialized Investigators......Page 659
Victim-Centered/Trauma-Informed Approach......Page 660
Challenges to Prosecution......Page 661
Uncertainty About the Evidence Necessary to Prove a Case......Page 662
Institutional Infrastructure to Support Prosecution......Page 663
References......Page 664
40 Multisector Collaboration Against Human Trafficking......Page 668
Introduction......Page 669
Origins and Forms of Multisector Collaborations Against Human Trafficking......Page 670
US Government Efforts to Initiate and Sustain Domestic Multisector Collaboration Against Human Trafficking......Page 671
Challenges in Multisector Collaboration to Counter Human Trafficking......Page 673
Tensions Due to Differing Values, Beliefs, and Priorities......Page 674
Example: Conflicting Sector-Based Concepts of a Victim-Centered Approach to Human Trafficking......Page 675
Gender and Race......Page 676
Promising Practices......Page 678
Conclusion......Page 679
References......Page 680
41 Health and Social Service-Based Human Trafficking Response Models......Page 682
Introduction......Page 683
Coordinating Body......Page 686
Guiding Principles and Values......Page 687
Victim Identification Procedure......Page 690
Referral and Assistance Protocol......Page 693
Discussion......Page 697
Conclusion......Page 699
Appendix A. Examples of human trafficking identification tools......Page 700
References......Page 711
42 The Investigation and Prosecution of Traffickers: Challenges and Opportunities......Page 716
The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) Toolkit (2008) and United Nations´ Themes......Page 717
The EU......Page 720
Canada......Page 721
The United States......Page 724
Investigation and Prosecution Case Study of the United Kingdom: Challenges and Best Practice......Page 726
Conclusion......Page 729
References......Page 730
43 Combating Trafficking in Persons Through Public Awareness and Legal Education of Duty Bearers in India......Page 733
Introduction......Page 734
Trafficking in Persons in India......Page 735
International Standards and Guidelines with Reference to Awareness and Knowledge of Trafficking in Persons......Page 737
Public Awareness and Legal Education for Duty Bearers: Why and By Whom Required......Page 739
Reasons for the Gaps in Awareness and Legal Knowledge of Both the General Public and the Duty Bearers......Page 741
Current Government and Nongovernment Initiatives in India Towards Legal and Public Education on Human Trafficking......Page 744
Recommendations for Curtailing Human Trafficking Through Public Awareness and Legal Education of Duty Bearers......Page 748
References......Page 750
44 It´s Your Business: The Role of the Private Sector in Human Trafficking......Page 753
Introduction......Page 754
Evidence on Private-Sector Involvement......Page 755
Infiltrating Legitimate Businesses: An Organized Crime Frame......Page 758
Crime in the Workplace: A Corporate Crime Frame......Page 759
Crime in Legitimate Markets: A Network Frame......Page 761
The Limitations of the Criminal Justice System......Page 763
Private-Sector Responses......Page 764
Conclusions......Page 765
References......Page 766
45 A Complex Systems Stratagem to Combating Human Trafficking......Page 771
The Complexity of Human Trafficking......Page 772
Complex Systems Theory [and Thinking] as a Response to Reductionism......Page 774
Human Trafficking as a Complex System......Page 777
Combating Human Trafficking: Embracing the ``Whole´´......Page 783
Summary......Page 786
References......Page 787
46 The Failing International Legal Framework on Migrant Smuggling and Human Trafficking......Page 791
Introduction......Page 792
The Convoluted and Confusing International Legal Framework......Page 793
The Failure of a Legal Fiction......Page 795
The Impact of the Criminalization Approach......Page 797
Ineffective International Cooperation......Page 798
Implications for Law Enforcement......Page 799
No Measurable Results......Page 800
Criminalization of Immigration......Page 801
Increased Vulnerability of Migrants and Victims......Page 802
Academic Research......Page 803
Cross-References......Page 804
References......Page 805
47 Psychological Care and Support for the Survivors of Trafficking......Page 809
Establishment and Purpose of the IOM RC......Page 810
Characteristics of the Survivors......Page 811
Counsellor-Survivor Relationship......Page 813
Roles of a Counselling Psychologist......Page 814
Psychological Rehabilitation at IOM RC......Page 815
Special Challenges Experienced by Counselling Psychologists Working with Survivors......Page 816
Fitness for Providing Psychological Counselling and Preventing Burnout......Page 818
Cross-References......Page 820
References......Page 821
48 Human Trafficking in Supply Chains and the Way Forward......Page 823
Introduction......Page 824
Method of Research and Development of Observations......Page 825
Scale of the Problem......Page 826
The Evolution of the Ethical Audit......Page 828
Methods of Ethical Auditing and Their Weaknesses......Page 829
Opacity in Human Rights Responsibilities......Page 833
Foundational Problem 1: Poverty......Page 834
Foundational Problem 2: Urbanization......Page 835
Foundational Problem 3: Broken Labor Sourcing......Page 836
The Future of Ethical Supply Chain Efforts......Page 837
Bottom-Up Disruptive Technology: Strengths and Weaknesses in Emerging Interventions......Page 838
Worker Surveys......Page 839
Online Supplier Vetting Platforms......Page 840
Conclusion......Page 841
References......Page 844
49 Family-Based Non-state Torturers Who Traffic Their Daughters: Praxis Principles and Healing Epiphanies......Page 846
Introduction......Page 847
Responding to Stresses......Page 848
Victimization, Credibility, and Reliability......Page 849
A Specific Typology......Page 850
Non-State Torture Victimization-Traumatization Informed Care......Page 852
Principle 1: Societal Formation of Patriarchy and Misogyny Outlined in Fig. 3......Page 854
Principle 2: ``Culture´´ Shock and Vicarious Trauma......Page 855
Principle 3: Observations of Various Survival and Healing Responses......Page 857
Principle 1 - Epiphany 1: Patriarchal Societal Formation, Feminism, and Human Rights......Page 860
Principle 2 - Epiphany 2: ``Culture´´ Shock and Vicarious Trauma and Challenging Beliefs......Page 861
Principle 3 - Epiphany 3: Other Normal Responses of Escaping Black Boxes of Memories......Page 862
Conclusion: Best Practices......Page 865
References......Page 866
50 Mediated Representation of Human Trafficking: Issues, Context, and Consequence......Page 871
Introduction......Page 872
Main Issues in Media Representation of Human Trafficking......Page 873
Zooming in: The Three S´s of THB Reporting - Stereotyping, Simplification, and Sensationalism......Page 875
Zooming Out: Context and Consequence of THB Reporting......Page 879
Recommendations......Page 882
References......Page 884
51 Aesthetic Whistle-Blowers: The Importance and Limitations of Art and Media in Addressing Human Trafficking......Page 887
Literary Roots to the Original Abolition Movement......Page 888
Literature´s Ability to Influence Memory......Page 892
Aesthetic Whistle-Blowing: Solzhenitsyn......Page 893
Contemporary Refugee Literatures: Oral Storytelling......Page 895
Artists: Complicit Agents of Justice or Injustice......Page 897
Truth-Telling in Our Times......Page 898
Summary......Page 900
References......Page 901
Part V: Local/National/International Response Mechanisms......Page 904
52 Regional Responses to Human Trafficking in Southeast Asia and Australasia......Page 905
The Nature and Scope of Trafficking in the Region......Page 906
Prosecution, Protection, and Prevention......Page 908
Partnership......Page 910
Prosecution, Protection, and Prevention......Page 912
Partnership......Page 914
References......Page 916
53 An Examination of Counter Trafficking Responses in the Asian Region: Hong Kong and Singapore......Page 920
Introduction......Page 921
Human Trafficking in the Era of Modern Slavery: The Counter Trafficking Framework......Page 922
Singapore......Page 923
Response: Law......Page 924
Response: Victim Support......Page 926
Limitations......Page 927
Hong Kong......Page 929
Response: Law......Page 930
Response: Victim Support......Page 931
Implementation: Data and Issues......Page 932
Conclusion: Interrogating the Impact of ``Counter Trafficking´´ on Vulnerable Migrants......Page 933
References......Page 934
54 Breaking Bondages: Control Methods, ``Juju,´´ and Human Trafficking......Page 938
Introduction......Page 939
The Arsenal of Control Methods Used by Traffickers: An Overview......Page 940
Physical Coercive Control Methods......Page 941
Nonphysical Coercive Control Methods......Page 943
Juju and Human Trafficking......Page 947
Divination and the Spirit World......Page 948
Juju as Control Mechanism......Page 949
Suggested Response Mechanisms......Page 950
Cross-References......Page 952
References......Page 953
55 The Quest for Education as a Factor of Vulnerability to Child Trafficking: Reflections on ``Child Rescue´´ from the Perspec.........Page 955
The Challenge of Defining Child Trafficking......Page 957
The Context of Child Trafficking in Nigeria/West Africa......Page 958
Accommodating Children´s Agency and Resilience Within Child Trafficking Interventions......Page 959
Seeking Children´s Perspectives in Nigerian Trafficking Situations......Page 960
Child Agency in Seeking Educational Opportunities: The Limits of Addressing Children´s Needs After ``Rescue´´ from Trafficking......Page 961
Discussion: Protecting Child Trafficking Survivors by Integrating Education into ``Rescue´´ Efforts......Page 966
Summary......Page 967
References......Page 968
56 Deportation: Challenging the Caribbean´s Anti-trafficking Policy......Page 971
Introduction......Page 972
The Role of Postcolonialism Theory in Examining Human Trafficking......Page 973
Human Trafficking and Sex Trafficking in the Caribbean: An Overview......Page 974
Sex Trafficking in the Caribbean......Page 975
The Role of Ethnography in Human Trafficking......Page 977
The Silent Crime in the Caribbean......Page 978
Conclusion......Page 982
References......Page 983
57 The Role of the Border and Border Policies in Efforts to Combat Human Trafficking: A Case Study of the Cascadia Region of t.........Page 986
Policy Context......Page 987
British Columbia and Washington State......Page 989
Cross-Border Collaboration......Page 990
Challenges to Measuring Policy Efficacy......Page 993
Conclusion: The Path Forward......Page 996
References......Page 998
58 Human Trafficking in Southeastern Europe: Council of Europe Perspective......Page 1001
Introduction......Page 1002
Recent THB Trends in SEE Countries......Page 1003
Labor Exploitation......Page 1006
Child Trafficking......Page 1007
Identification of Victims......Page 1008
Compensation and Legal Redress......Page 1009
Other Issues......Page 1010
Conclusion......Page 1011
Cross-References......Page 1013
References......Page 1014
59 An Attempt to Control Human Trafficking from a Human Rights-Based Approach: The Case of Spain......Page 1015
Introduction......Page 1016
Historical Evolution of Human Trafficking in Spanish Criminal Law......Page 1017
The Concept of Human Trafficking in Spanish Criminal Law......Page 1018
Convictions for Human Trafficking in Spain......Page 1020
The Process of Identification......Page 1021
Data on the Identification of Trafficking Victims in Spain......Page 1022
Period of Recovery and Reflection......Page 1024
Residence and Work Permits......Page 1025
Protection and Assistance of Human Trafficking Victims in Spain......Page 1026
Summary: Critical Assessment and Proposals for Improvement......Page 1028
Cross-References......Page 1030
References......Page 1031
60 Response for Human Trafficking in Poland in a Nutshell......Page 1032
Introduction......Page 1033
Human Trafficking in Poland: Genesis and Specifics......Page 1034
Legal Regulations on Human Trafficking in Poland......Page 1039
A System of Eliminating Human Trafficking in Poland......Page 1042
Conclusion......Page 1045
Cross-References......Page 1046
References......Page 1047
61 Tackling Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking in Wales......Page 1049
A Brief Historical Overview of Action to Tackle Human Trafficking in Wales......Page 1050
The Wales-Specific Structure to Tackling Human Trafficking......Page 1051
Wales Anti-Slavery Coordinator......Page 1052
Wales Anti-Slavery Leadership Group......Page 1053
A Structured Response to Modern Slavery in Wales......Page 1055
Prosecutor Commitments......Page 1056
Police Response......Page 1057
Children Who May Be Trafficked......Page 1058
Gwent Missing Children´s Hub......Page 1059
Awareness......Page 1060
Strategic Objective 6: ``The Protection of Vulnerable People in the Homeless Sector in Wales´´......Page 1062
Strategic Objective 7: Continue to Develop and Deliver a Consistent Anti-slavery Training Program for Wales......Page 1063
Victim Response Pathway......Page 1064
Strategic Objective 9: Working with ``Source Countries´´......Page 1065
Wales Anti-slavery Logo: Tested Coordinated Action at a Glance......Page 1066
References......Page 1067
62 Human Trafficking in the Russian Federation: Scope of the Problem......Page 1069
Introduction......Page 1070
The Scope of Human Trafficking in Russia: Pre the ``Perestroika´´ to the Twenty-First Century......Page 1071
Available Statistics on Human Trafficking in the Russian Federation......Page 1075
Existing Types of Trafficking in Persons in the Russian Federation......Page 1076
Recruitment Methods and Mechanisms of Human Trafficking......Page 1077
Push and Pull Factors of Human Trafficking in Russia......Page 1078
Existing Labor Practices in National Construction Projects as Pre-conditions for Trafficking......Page 1079
Irregular Migration and Human Trafficking Codependence......Page 1080
The North Korean Labor Trafficking Case......Page 1081
Solutions and Challenges in Preventing and Combating Human Trafficking in RF......Page 1082
Cases of Successful Partnerships of NGOs and the State......Page 1083
Conclusion......Page 1086
References......Page 1087
63 Human Trafficking in Greece......Page 1091
Introduction......Page 1092
The Migration and Human Trafficking Nexus in Greece......Page 1093
Legislative Responses in a Changing Landscape......Page 1095
Trafficking in and Through Greece: What We Know......Page 1096
The Legislative Framework......Page 1101
Anti-trafficking in Practice......Page 1103
Conclusion......Page 1106
References......Page 1107
64 Legislation, Policies, and Practices Against Trafficking in Human Beings: The Case of Kosovo......Page 1111
Introduction......Page 1112
Legal and Institutional Framework......Page 1114
Framework in Theory and in Practice......Page 1117
Identification of Victims......Page 1119
Prevention and Protection of Victims......Page 1120
Investigation, Prosecution, and Sentencing......Page 1121
Victims as Witnesses......Page 1122
Recommendations and Future Directions......Page 1123
Conclusion......Page 1126
References......Page 1127
65 (Anti-)trafficking for Labor Exploitation in Romania: A Labor Perspective......Page 1131
Introduction......Page 1132
Legal Context of Trafficking in Romania......Page 1133
Anti-trafficking in Romania......Page 1135
Nature of Labor Exploitation in Romania......Page 1136
Poverty and Poor Working Conditions......Page 1138
Informal Economy......Page 1140
Romania as Emigration Country?......Page 1141
Conclusion......Page 1143
Cross-References......Page 1144
References......Page 1145
66 Human Trafficking Cases in Chile: Challenges for Reducing the ``Dark Figure´´......Page 1148
Introduction......Page 1149
Border Control Policy Impact on Human Trafficking: The Case of Tarapac......Page 1150
Criminal Justice System Limitations: Trafficking Definition and Identification......Page 1153
Limitations for Estimating the ``Dark Figure´´ on Human Trafficking in Chile......Page 1155
Conclusion: Challenges for the Identification of Victims and for Reducing the Dark Figure on Human Trafficking......Page 1157
References......Page 1159
67 The Application of the Non-punishment Principle to Victims of Human Trafficking in the United States......Page 1162
The Non-punishment Principle in International Law......Page 1163
Trafficking-Related Offenses......Page 1166
The Non-punishment Principle in US Law......Page 1167
Immunity and Diversion......Page 1169
Affirmative Defense......Page 1172
Vacating Criminal Convictions......Page 1173
Conclusion......Page 1175
Cross-References......Page 1176
References......Page 1177
68 Combatting Trafficking in Human Beings: A Step on the Road to Global Justice?......Page 1179
Introduction......Page 1180
The Legislation in Force......Page 1181
Statement of Purpose......Page 1182
Evaluation of Effects......Page 1184
Human Trafficking and Global Justice......Page 1191
Governing Through Crime......Page 1192
References......Page 1196
69 Combatting Human Trafficking in Lebanon: Prosecution, Protection, and Prevention......Page 1200
Overview of the Situation of Human Trafficking in Lebanon Before 2011......Page 1201
Current Lebanese Law on the Punishment for Human Trafficking......Page 1204
Prosecution and Investigations......Page 1205
Preventive Measures......Page 1208
Conclusion......Page 1209
Further Reading......Page 1211
Lebanese NGO´S Website......Page 1212
70 Strategies to Restore Justice for Sex Trafficked Native Women......Page 1213
Introduction......Page 1214
Colonial Era and American Revolution......Page 1215
``Gynemutilation´´......Page 1216
Ports and Waterways......Page 1217
Historical Evidence of Prostitution and Trafficking Around Duluth......Page 1218
Disparities in Native American Women´s Lives in US......Page 1219
Disparities in First Nation Women´s Lives in Canada......Page 1220
Prostituted and Trafficked First Nation Women in Canada......Page 1221
Contemporary Prostitution and Trafficking of Native Women in Duluth......Page 1222
Contemporary Prostitution and Trafficking of First Nation Women in Thunder Bay......Page 1223
Legal Strategies......Page 1224
Pursuing Civil Litigation......Page 1225
Support for Prostituted and Sex Trafficked Indigenous Women......Page 1227
Duluth as a Case Study......Page 1228
Conclusion......Page 1229
References......Page 1230
71 Human Trafficking in China......Page 1235
History......Page 1236
Scope of Human Trafficking......Page 1237
Forced Marriages......Page 1238
Forced Labor......Page 1239
Forced Sex Work......Page 1240
Human Smuggling......Page 1241
Response Mechanisms: Policies and Strategies......Page 1242
Policy Recommendations......Page 1244
References......Page 1245
Part VI: Organizational Profiles......Page 1248
72 Explaining Human Trafficking: Modern Day-Slavery......Page 1249
Causes and Contributing Factors of Human Trafficking......Page 1250
Push and Pull Factors......Page 1251
Capitalism Theory and Trafficking in Persons......Page 1252
Globalization......Page 1253
Demand and Supply Theory......Page 1254
Economics......Page 1255
Human Rights-Based Explanation......Page 1256
Victim-Oriented Framework and Theories......Page 1257
Conclusion......Page 1262
References......Page 1263
73 Human Trafficking: An International Response......Page 1267
General Human Rights Instruments......Page 1268
Specific Instruments......Page 1269
Affected Rights......Page 1274
The Right to Liberty and Security of the Person......Page 1275
The Right to Privacy......Page 1276
The Right Not to Be Subjected to Inhumane or Degrading Treatment or Torture......Page 1277
The Right to Equality......Page 1281
The Right to Work......Page 1282
Remedies......Page 1283
Enforcement Challenges and Possible Solutions......Page 1285
Conclusion......Page 1287
References......Page 1288
74 EU Anti-trafficking Coordinator: Trajectory of a Unique Mandate......Page 1291
Developing the EU Area of Freedom, Security, and Justice......Page 1292
The Policy Impetus......Page 1293
Stockholm Programme and the Post-Lisbon Reality......Page 1295
The Role of the European Parliament......Page 1299
Toward a Legislative Proposal......Page 1301
The Mandate in Function......Page 1305
References......Page 1309
75 National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings and Sexual Violence Against Children, the Netherlands......Page 1311
Historical Development and Expansion of the Office of the National Rapporteur......Page 1312
Organization and Financing of the National Rapporteur......Page 1313
Reports of the National Rapporteur......Page 1315
Key Quantitative Figures......Page 1316
Collaborative Research in Estimating the Number of Victims in the Netherlands......Page 1317
Research Influencing Policy......Page 1318
Recommendations of the National Rapporteur......Page 1319
National Legislation......Page 1321
Regulatory Responses......Page 1323
Regulating the Prostitution Sector......Page 1324
Awareness Raising and Increased Protection for (Potential) Victims......Page 1325
Protection of Foreign Victims and Amendments to the B8 Regulation......Page 1326
Training, Awareness, and Identification......Page 1327
Prosecution and Trial......Page 1328
External Evaluation of the Work of the National Rapporteur......Page 1329
References......Page 1331
76 Sale of Children and Trafficking in Children as International Crimes......Page 1333
Introduction......Page 1334
Child Marriage and Sexual Abuse and Exploitation......Page 1337
Sale of Children on the Move......Page 1338
Sale of Children Facilitated by Information Technology......Page 1339
Sale of Children and Forced Labor......Page 1340
Sale of Children and Illegal Adoption......Page 1342
Sale of Children and Commercial Surrogacy......Page 1344
The Mandate of the United Nations Special Rapporteur as an Institutional Response......Page 1346
Concluding Remarks......Page 1349
References......Page 1350
77 Protection of Migrants Against Labor Exploitation in the Regulation of Migration in the EU......Page 1352
Introduction......Page 1353
Definitions......Page 1354
Intra-EU Labor Migration......Page 1355
Residence Right......Page 1356
Equal Treatment......Page 1357
Access to Social Security......Page 1358
Admission to the EU Territory......Page 1359
Residence Right......Page 1360
Access to Work......Page 1361
Equal Treatment......Page 1362
Undocumented Migrants: The Employers´ Sanctions Directive......Page 1363
Conclusion......Page 1364
References......Page 1366
78 Return on Investment: Spending on Combatting Human Trafficking......Page 1367
Introduction......Page 1368
Research Limitations......Page 1370
Historical Underpinnings in Defining Human Trafficking......Page 1372
Spending in an Illegal Market......Page 1373
Conclusions......Page 1375
References......Page 1377
79 European Court of Human Rights and the Right Not to Be Subjected to Slavery, Servitude, Forced Labor, and Human Trafficking......Page 1382
Introduction......Page 1383
Rantsev v. Cyprus and Russia: The Addition of Human Trafficking and the Expansion of States´ Positive Obligations......Page 1384
C.N. and V. v. France: Clarification as to the Distinction Between Forced Labor and Servitude......Page 1386
M. and Others v. Italy and Bulgaria: Reaffirmation of Human Trafficking......Page 1388
L.E. v. Greece: A Slight Retreat......Page 1389
J. and Others v. Austria: Continuation of the Uncertainty Introduced with the Addition of Human Trafficking......Page 1391
Chowdury and Others v. Greece: The Vulnerability of Migrant Workers......Page 1393
Conclusion......Page 1395
References......Page 1396
Introduction......Page 1397
Mandate and Duties of the Ombudsman as the National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings......Page 1399
Work of the National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings in Practice......Page 1401
Foreword......Page 1406
Provisions on Assisting Victims of Human Trafficking in International and EU Law......Page 1407
Report on the Effectiveness of the Legislation Applying to Assistance for Victims of Human Trafficking......Page 1408
Discussion and Analysis......Page 1411
Conclusion......Page 1412
References......Page 1413
Part VII: The Work of Nongovernmental Organizations......Page 1415
81 Major International Counter-Trafficking Organizations: Addressing Human Trafficking from Multiple Directions......Page 1416
Introduction......Page 1417
United Nations and Intergovernmental Organization Initiatives......Page 1419
Policy and Advocacy Efforts by Nongovernment Organizations......Page 1421
Public-Private Initiatives......Page 1423
Networks and Coalitions......Page 1424
Victim Services......Page 1426
Awareness and Movement-Building Organizations......Page 1427
Summary......Page 1428
References......Page 1429
Organizations and Resources......Page 1430
82 Soroptimist International´s Work in the Prevention of Modern-Day Slavery: Wales as a Good Practice Example of Partnership W.........Page 1432
Background......Page 1433
The Work of the Four Soroptimist International Federations on Modern Slavery/Human Trafficking......Page 1434
Soroptimist International of the Americas......Page 1435
Soroptimist International Europe......Page 1436
Soroptimist International South West Pacific......Page 1437
Soroptimist International Great Britain and Ireland......Page 1438
UK Programme Action Committee (UKPAC)......Page 1439
Wales as a Good Practice Example for Successful Partnership in the Fight to Combat Trafficking in Human Beings......Page 1440
Conclusion......Page 1446
References......Page 1447
Legislation......Page 1448
83 NGOs Combating the Problem of Human Trafficking in South Asian Countries: A Review of Legal and Administrative Measures wit.........Page 1449
Community-Based Prevention......Page 1451
Economic Rehabilitation......Page 1452
Bhabna Association for People´s Upliftment......Page 1453
Anti-trafficking Centers......Page 1454
Group Homes......Page 1455
Apne Aap Women Worldwide (AAWW)......Page 1456
Right to Legal Protection......Page 1457
Formal Education......Page 1458
Rescue......Page 1459
Psychosocial Counseling......Page 1460
Rescue Operations Through Community Vigilant Group......Page 1461
WISH: Women Initiatives Toward Self-Help......Page 1462
Maiti Nepal......Page 1463
Raksha Nepal......Page 1464
Society for Human Rights and Prisoners´ Aid (SHARP)......Page 1465
The Ansar Burney Trust......Page 1466
ANTAR......Page 1467
ATSEC Action Against Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation of Children, Bangladesh Chapter (ATSEC)......Page 1468
Center for Women and Children Studies (CWCS)......Page 1469
The Human Rights Commission of the Maldives......Page 1470
Conclusion......Page 1471
Websites......Page 1473
84 The NGO Response to Human Trafficking: Challenges, Opportunities, and Constraints......Page 1475
Methodology......Page 1476
Trafficking and the Support Sector: Contracted Provision of Support......Page 1478
Challenges to the Provision of Support Services......Page 1479
The Development of the Trafficking Support Sector over Time......Page 1480
Faith and Support Services for Human Trafficking Victims......Page 1481
Relationship Between Contractual Culture, Government Discourse, Work with Trafficking Victims, and Faith......Page 1484
Conclusion......Page 1486
References......Page 1487
85 The Role of Women´s Nongovernmental Organizations in Bulgaria for More Effective Protection and Assistance to Victims of Hu.........Page 1488
Ensuring the Basis for Services to Victims......Page 1489
Ensuring Coordination, Counseling for Victims Including Legal Counseling Without Delay......Page 1491
Long-Term Psychological and Social Support......Page 1493
Legal Standards and Measures for the Protection of Victims of Trafficking and Realizing Responsibility of Offenders. The Role .........Page 1494
Strasbourg: Complaints......Page 1496
The Judgment......Page 1497
Challenges of Implementation of the Judgment: The Issue of Compensation......Page 1498
Conclusion......Page 1499
86 Working with Parliamentarians, Statutory Authorities, and the NGO Sector: The Role of the Human Trafficking Foundation in I.........Page 1500
The Human Trafficking Foundation: Partnerships and Parliamentarians......Page 1501
The Modern Slavery Act: The End of the Journey?......Page 1502
Section 52: A Duty to Notify......Page 1504
Identification in Local Authorities......Page 1505
Preventative Work and Identification by Police......Page 1506
The HTF´s Work with Local Authorities......Page 1507
SPOC Network......Page 1508
Pan-London Working......Page 1509
Inadequate Support: Day 1 and Day 46......Page 1510
The Trafficking and Survivor Care Standards......Page 1511
Long-Term Support......Page 1512
References......Page 1516
Further Readings......Page 1517
87 How Lifelong Discrimination and Legal Inequality Facilitate Sex Trafficking in Women and Girls......Page 1519
Introduction......Page 1520
How Gender Discrimination in Law and Practice Sets Women and Girls up for Sexual Exploitation......Page 1521
Human Rights and Protection Under the Law......Page 1523
Distinguishing Trafficking, Sexual Exploitation, and Prostitution: The Exploitation Continuum......Page 1528
Abuse of Power......Page 1530
Government Responses to Managing the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others......Page 1531
Conclusion......Page 1533
References......Page 1534
88 ACT Alberta: A Canadian Case Study of a Collaborative and Evidence-Based Approach to Address Human Trafficking......Page 1537
History of ACT Alberta......Page 1538
Strategy I: Cross-Sectoral Collaboration......Page 1540
Challenges to Stakeholder Collaboration......Page 1542
Strategy II: Evidence-Informed Practice......Page 1544
Program Areas: Training and Awareness Raising on Human Trafficking......Page 1546
Coordinating Services for Victims of Human Trafficking......Page 1547
Conclusion......Page 1549
References......Page 1550
89 State-Level Interventions for Human Trafficking: The Advocates for Human Rights......Page 1552
About The Advocates for Human Rights......Page 1553
Human Trafficking in Minnesota......Page 1554
2008 Sex Trafficking Needs Assessment Report......Page 1555
Safe Harbor for Youth......Page 1556
Strategic Plan for Adult Trafficking Victims......Page 1559
Labor Trafficking......Page 1560
Asking the Right Questions......Page 1561
Statewide Labor Trafficking Protocol......Page 1562
Lessons Learned and Next Steps......Page 1564
Federal Statutes......Page 1565
References......Page 1566
Part VIII: Future Issues and Directions in Controlling Human Trafficking......Page 1568
90 The Praxis of Protection: Working with - and Against - Human Trafficking Discourse......Page 1569
A Vantage Point on Human Trafficking and Protection......Page 1570
The Making of a Global Social Problem......Page 1572
Local Perspectives on Social Phenomena Constructed as Human Trafficking......Page 1574
Constructing Victims of Trafficking at Large......Page 1577
Constructing Individual Victims of Trafficking......Page 1579
References......Page 1582
91 Self-Identification of Victimization of Labor Trafficking......Page 1586
Introduction......Page 1587
Explaining Low Self-Identification of Victimization of Labor Exploitation......Page 1589
Two Trajectories to Self-Identification in the Netherlands......Page 1592
Discussion......Page 1594
Cross-References......Page 1597
References......Page 1598
92 How to Effectively Approach and Calculate Restitution for a Victim of Human Trafficking......Page 1600
Growing Focus of Human Trafficking for Forced Labor......Page 1601
Need for a Nuanced Criminal Restitution Calculation Forced Labor......Page 1603
Recovery for Forced Labor Varies Based on Causes of Action Asserted......Page 1605
Restitution Remains the Best Opportunity to Calculate the Value of Forced Labor......Page 1606
Fair Market Value Evaluation Is Not the Best Method of Calculating Restitution......Page 1607
Fair Market Value Computation Allows Trafficker to Benefit from Their Crime......Page 1608
California Penal Code Section 1202.4(q) Provides Equitable Calculations......Page 1609
Cross-References......Page 1610
References......Page 1611
Statutes......Page 1612
Cases......Page 1613
93 The Advent of a Legislation Proscribing Trafficking in India: A Prescriptive Package for Victims of Trafficking or a Mere R.........Page 1614
Introduction......Page 1615
Human Trafficking in South Asia......Page 1616
Toward a Comprehensive Law on Anti-trafficking in India......Page 1619
The Carceral Nature of the Trafficking in Persons Bill......Page 1621
Ambiguity in the Bill´s Language......Page 1623
Failure to Consolidate Existing Laws......Page 1624
Failure to Address Root Causes and the Realities of Migration and Bonded Labor......Page 1625
Toward a Prescriptive Package for Victims of Trafficking......Page 1626
Conclusion......Page 1627
Cross-References......Page 1628
References......Page 1629
94 Corporate Criminal Liability on Human Trafficking......Page 1632
Corporations´ Involvement from Service Providers to Beneficiaries......Page 1633
Human Trafficking, Forced Labor, and Slavery: Conceptual Observations......Page 1634
Different Approaches to Corporate Criminal Liability......Page 1635
Trafficking in Human Beings Both as a Transnational and a Domestic Phenomenon......Page 1636
Trafficking and Exploitation: Criminalization of Use of Services of Victims of Trafficking in Human Beings......Page 1637
Overlapping Elements of Human Trafficking and Exploitation by Forced Labor......Page 1638
Corporate Criminal Liability for Forced Labor and Practices Similar to Slavery: Legal Challenges and Unsolved Questions......Page 1639
Obligations to Establish Corporate Liability, Might It be of Criminal, Civil, or Administrative Nature......Page 1640
Sanctions, Confiscation......Page 1642
Forced Labor or Practices Similar to Slavery: Which Standard Shall Be Applied?......Page 1643
Territorial and/or Extraterritorial Jurisdiction......Page 1645
Preliminary Conclusions......Page 1646
Corporate Criminal and Civil Liability......Page 1647
Cross-References......Page 1648
References......Page 1649
95 Measuring Trafficking in Persons Better: Problems and Prospects......Page 1651
Why Collecting Statistics on Human Trafficking?......Page 1652
The Problems with Official Statistics on Victims of Trafficking......Page 1653
European Victim Statistics Revisited......Page 1655
Global Statistics......Page 1656
Regional Numbers at the Global Level......Page 1657
National Numbers......Page 1658
European Numbers in Focus......Page 1659
Evaluation......Page 1661
Estimating the True Numbers......Page 1662
Evaluation......Page 1663
The Way Ahead: Bespoke Surveys and Multiple Systems Estimation......Page 1665
Discussion......Page 1666
References......Page 1667
96 Using Criminal Routines and Techniques to Predict and Prevent the Sexual Exploitation of Eastern-European Women in Western .........Page 1669
Introduction......Page 1670
Trafficking Routes and Statistics......Page 1671
Organized Criminal Gangs, Digital Technology, and the Trafficking Process......Page 1673
Law Enforcement Agencies´ Responses......Page 1675
Trafficking and Organized Crime Groups......Page 1678
Organized Crime Groups and Organized Crime Networks Modus Operandi......Page 1680
From Theory to Practice......Page 1682
Conclusion......Page 1684
Summary......Page 1685
References......Page 1686
97 Using Law Enforcement Data in Trafficking Research......Page 1689
The Trafficking Evidence Base: Weak Designs, Hard-to-Access Data, and Skews in Focus......Page 1690
Limitations of Law Enforcement Data......Page 1692
Law Enforcement Data: A Goldmine for Trafficking Research......Page 1693
Initial Design and Contact......Page 1695
Understanding Resourcing......Page 1704
Securing Organizational Support......Page 1705
Dealing with Sensitive and Restricted Data......Page 1706
Conclusion......Page 1708
References......Page 1709
98 Combating Human Trafficking for the Purpose of Organ Removal: Lessons Learned from Prosecuting Criminal Cases......Page 1713
Introduction......Page 1714
Case Description......Page 1716
Trafficking in Human Beings for the Purpose of Organ Removal......Page 1717
Challenges to the Investigation and Prosecution......Page 1718
Trafficking in Human Beings for the Purpose of Organ Removal......Page 1720
Legal Framework and Law Enforcement Response......Page 1721
Challenges to Investigation and Prosecution......Page 1722
Discussion: Issues and Directions in Controlling THBOR......Page 1723
References......Page 1726
99 A Transnational Field Approach to the Study of Labor Trafficking......Page 1730
Introduction......Page 1731
Transnational Space......Page 1732
Transnational Organized Crime Networks......Page 1734
Vulnerability Inherent in Migration......Page 1736
Transnational Networks......Page 1737
Conclusion......Page 1739
References......Page 1741
100 Individual Criminal Responsibility Beyond the State: Human Trafficking as Both a Transnational and an International Crime......Page 1743
The Crime of Human Trafficking......Page 1744
National Dimension and Criminality......Page 1745
Cooperation Regimes......Page 1746
International Regimes......Page 1747
The Rome Statute......Page 1748
General Requirements for ICC Jurisdiction......Page 1749
Enslavement......Page 1750
The Kunarac Case......Page 1751
Other Provisions in Article 7 of the Rome Statute......Page 1752
The ``Regionalization´´ of (International) Criminal Justice and the Inclusion of Human Trafficking Within the American, Africa.........Page 1753
The United Nations Security Council and the Crime of Human Trafficking......Page 1757
References......Page 1760
101 Labor Trafficking of Men in the Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Camps of Madre de Dios: A Reflection from the ``Dias.........Page 1763
Introduction......Page 1764
The Dynamics of the Irregular Gold Economy and Labor Trafficking in the MDD Gold Mining Camps: An Overview......Page 1767
Scoping Labor Trafficking......Page 1768
Some Indicators......Page 1769
What Is the Peruvian Government Doing to Fight Human Trafficking?......Page 1771
The Need for New Approaches to Counteract Labor Trafficking: The Theoretical Debate......Page 1772
From the Security Approach to the ``Diaspora Networks Approach´´......Page 1773
References......Page 1777
102 Is It Time to Open a Conversation About a New United Nations Treaty to Fight Human Trafficking That Focuses on Victim Prot.........Page 1781
Introduction......Page 1782
Part 1: The Palermo Protocol......Page 1783
Critique of Aspects of the Transnational Criminal Justice, Crime Control as Deterrent, and Immigration-Led Approaches of the P.........Page 1785
Critique of Limited Victim Protection and Prevention Measures in the Palermo Protocol......Page 1789
Progressing the Human Rights Agenda: Palermo and Beyond......Page 1790
Human Dignity as the Foundation of Any New Treaty......Page 1791
Prevention and Assistance......Page 1793
Conclusion......Page 1794
References......Page 1795
103 Human Trafficking and Migration: Examining the Issues from Gender and Policy Perspectives......Page 1797
Differentiating Human Trafficking and Smuggling of Migrants......Page 1798
Human Trafficking and Migration: The Linkages and Policy Issues......Page 1801
Human Trafficking-Migration Nexus: Gender Issues......Page 1804
Conclusion and Recommendations......Page 1808
References......Page 1809
Index......Page 1812