In this handbook, a group of 40 scholars and practitioners from some 30 countries takes a critical look at the contemporary practice of diplomacy. Many assume diplomacy evolves naturally, and that state- and non-state actors are powerless to make significant changes. But Diplomacy’s methods, its key institutions and conventions were agreed more than six decades ago. None take account of the opportunities and vulnerabilities presented by the Internet. Diplomacy is now a neglected global issue.The COVID pandemic and the invasion of Ukraine have highlighted some of the problems of diplomatic dysfunction. Beyond identifying current problems diplomacy is facing, the book also seeks to identify some practical options for reform and innovation. How might a process of reform be agreed and implemented? What role might the United Nations, regional organizations and Big Tech play? How can new norms of diplomatic behavior and methods be established in a multipolar, digital world where diplomacy is seen as less and less effective?
Author(s): Paul Webster Hare, Juan Luis Manfredi-Sánchez, Kenneth Weisbrode
Series: Studies in Diplomacy and International Relations
Publisher: Palgrave Macmillan
Year: 2023
Language: English
Pages: 757
City: Cham
Contents
Notes on Contributors
List of Figures
List of Tables
Part I: Introduction
1: Diplomacy the Neglected Global Issue: Why Diplomacy Needs to Catch Up with the World
Introduction
Diplomacy Affects Not Only States
Why This Era Is Ripe for Reform and Innovation
What Parts of Diplomacy Need Reform?
Innovation
Themes Covered
State of Diplomacy
Politicization of Diplomacy
Reforming Institutions
Digital Revolution and Diplomatic Reform
Multilateral Diplomacy and Innovation
The Diplomatic Agenda
Conclusions: Avenues for Reform
References and Further Reading
Part II: State of Diplomacy
2: The Closing of the Diplomatic Mind
I
II
III
References and Further Reading
3: A Diplomatic Taxonomy for the New World Disorder
Introduction: Diplomacy as the Management of Relationships
The Cold War Debasement of Diplomatic Terminology and the New World Disorder
Deconstructing Relationships Between States
The Formation and Staying Power of Coalitions
Ad hoc Coalitions
Ententes
Alliances
Transactional and One-Sided Relationships
Client States
Protected States
Non-committal, Transactional Relationships
Competitive Relationships
Rivalry
Adversarial Antagonism
Enmity
Conclusion
References and Further Reading
4: Knowledge Diplomacy: A Conceptual Analysis
Introduction
Why Knowledge Diplomacy
Analyzing Knowledge Diplomacy: A Definition and Description
Knowledge Diplomacy in Relation to Cultural, Science, Public, and Education Diplomacy
Cultural Diplomacy and Knowledge Diplomacy
Science Diplomacy and Knowledge Diplomacy
Education Diplomacy and Knowledge Diplomacy
Public Diplomacy and Knowledge Diplomacy
Toward a Conceptual Framework for Knowledge Diplomacy
Intentions, Purpose, Rationales
Actors and Partners
Principles and Values
Modes and Approaches
Activities and Instruments
Application of the Knowledge Diplomacy Framework
Pan-African University: A Regional University
Intentions, Purpose, Rationales
Actors
Key Principles/Values
Modes
Activities
Differentiating Knowledge Diplomacy and Soft Power
Concluding Remarks
References and Further Reading
5: Why Reforms Are Needed in Bilateral Diplomacy: A Global South Perspective
Introduction1
The Problématique
Bilateral Priorities
Bilateral Diplomacy, New Practices
Representation Options
The MFA and Foreign Trade
How to Reform
What to Reform?
Reform Pitfalls
Global South Challenges
Diplomacy as a Public Good
The World in Flux
References and Further Reading
Part III: Politicization of Diplomacy
6: Diplomats and Politicization
Diplomacy, Contexts, and Diplomats’ Responses
Diplomats’ Professional Milieu
Diplomats’ International Context
Diplomats’ Domestic Context
Politicization: A Multilayered Concept and Practice
Politicization as Relations of Power
Diplomats and Politicization
Australia: A Case Study
Conclusion: Looking Ahead
References and Further Reading
7: Digital Diplomacy and International Society in the Age of Populism
Introduction
Theoretical Investigations
Digitalization of Diplomacy
Implications of the Digitalization of Diplomacy on International Relations
Digital Diplomacy and Turkey
Studying Turkish Diplomacy on Twitter
Turkish Twiplomacy by the Numbers
What to Do?
Lessons from Digital Diplomacy for Future Diplomats
Appendix
References and Further Reading
8: Withering Ministry of Foreign Affairs: Evidence from China
MFA and Its Spokesperson System
Distribution Patterns of Blind Spots
Economic Affairs
Military Affairs
Issues Related to North Korea
Consular Affairs
Summit Diplomacy
Types of Challenges Facing the MFA
Economic Affairs: Multiple Competitors
Military Affairs: A Thick Wall
North Korea Issues: Special Relationship with a Parallel MFA
Summit Diplomacy: Eroding the MFA from Above
Consular Affairs: Challenges from Below
Common Features or Chinese Characteristics
References and Further Reading
9: South Africa and Its Foreign Alignment and Practice: From Hope to Dashed Expectations
Overtaken by Events
White Paper on Foreign Policy: Box Ticking, Lack of Priority Focus
Dimming the Light on Human Rights
The Core of Beliefs
Biting the Hand
Clown-Car Diplomacy
Holier Than Thou in the Holy Land
Ukraine War Exposes Limits of South Africa’s Approach
Early Hopes Dashed by Subsequent Events at Home
References and Further Reading
Part IV: Reforming Institutions
10: From Great Expectations to Dwindling Status: Brazilian Diplomacy’s Response to Post-Cold War Upheavals
Introduction
The Legacy of the Past
After the Cold War
Conclusion
References and Further Reading
11: Crisis Prevention and Stabilization Made in Germany: Meeting the Demands of Modern Diplomacy?
Introduction: Diplomatic Reform and Crisis Diplomacy
Germany’s Review 2014: Crisis, Order, Europe
Conditions for Reform
A Relational Perspective on Diplomatic Evolution
New Job Descriptions and New Methods?
Outlook: Reform Requires Different Practices
References and Further Reading
12: Integrated Statecraft and Australia’s Diplomacy
Introduction
Australia’s Foreign Policy
Australia’s Declining Diplomacy
A Diplomatic Innovation
Conclusion
References and Further Reading
13: African Union Reform: Challenges and Opportunities
Introduction
Clout, Credibility, Commitment, and the AU’s Performance
Clout
Commitments
Funding Challenges
Variations in Institutional Autonomy
Credibility
Looking Ahead
References and Further Reading
14: What Motivates South Korea’s Diplomatic Reform and Innovation?
Introduction
Background to South Korea’s Contemporary Diplomatic Practice
Case Study: South Korea’s Diplomatic Reform and Innovation
The Kim Young-sam Administration (1993–97)
The Kim Dae-jung Administration (1998–2002)
The Roh Moo-hyun Administration (2003–7)
The Lee Myung-bak Administration (2008–12)
The Park Geun-hye Administration (2013–17)
The Moon Jae-in Administration (2017–22)
Key Findings and Implications
References and Further Reading
15: The Transformations of French Diplomacy
Further Reading
Part V: Digital Revolution and Diplomatic Reform
16: Digital Diplomacy in the Time of the Coronavirus Pandemic: Lessons and Recommendations
Introduction
A Shifting Diplomatic Landscape
Crisis Management
International Collaboration
Foreign Policy Continuity
Countering Disinformation
Innovation
Conclusion
References and Further Reading
17: Exploring the Usefulness of Artificial Intelligence for Diplomatic Negotiations: Two Case Studies
The Nature of Diplomatic Communication and Interaction
Elements Determining the Process and Outcome of Diplomatic Negotiations
Artificial Intelligence
Two Case Studies
Case Study 1: The German-Austrian Customs Union
The Background
The Negotiations
Evaluation of the Determining Elements of Diplomatic Negotiations
Case Study 2: The UN General Assembly Cybercrime Resolution
UN General Assembly Session 73
UN General Assembly Session 74
The Problem
AI as an Answer?
Data Collection
Data Analysis
AI as a Tool for Diplomatic Negotiations
References and Further Reading
18: Beyond Meeting and Tweeting: The Next Challenges for Innovation in Diplomacy
The First Phase Was “Brave New World”
References and Further Reading
19: Disinformation and Diplomacy
What Is Information Disorder?
Why Now?
Diplomatic Goals
Challenges
Conclusion
References and Further Reading
20: Digitalizing South American MFAs: Reform and Resistance
Digitalizing Diplomatic Practices
Resisting Change
Shifting toward the Digital Now
A Reluctant Digitalization
Embracing Innovation and Reform: Organic and Formal Change
References and Further Reading
Part VI: Multilateral Diplomacy and Innovation
21: Toward a More Credible Multilateralism at the United Nations: A Few Practical Steps
The United Nations in History
Move beyond Declarative Multilateralism
Think through Multilateral Initiatives Thoroughly
Modernize and Accelerate National Implementation Procedures
Mainstream Multilateral Diplomacy
Build Long-Term, Flexible, and Actionable Alliances
Streamline and Update UN Agendas and Priorities
Instill New Values in Multilateral Diplomacy
Improve Communication about the UN and Multilateralism
Promote Academic Research on UN Achievements
Concluding Remarks
Further Reading
22: A New Logic of Multilateralism on Demand
Introduction
What Is Multilateralism?
Multilateralism in History
Multilateralism Matters
Multilateralism Challenged
COVID-19: Revealing the Failings of Multilateralism
Multilateralism Facing Russian Aggression against Ukraine
A New Path to Effective Multilateralism
Reforming Existing Institutions Anew Beyond Rhetoric
Forums as Leverage for Innovation
Individual Policy Initiatives Leading to Multilateral Cooperation
A New Logic of Multilateralism on Demand
References and Further Reading
23: About Spheres of Influence
Why Are Spheres of Influence Established?
The Origins of Spheres of Influence
World War II, the Cold War, and Decolonization
Contemporary Spheres of Influence
Post-Soviet Europe
The Middle East
The U.S. “Pivot” to East Asia
Sino-Russian Entente
NATO, the EU, Turkey, and Russia
Post-Soviet Central Asia
The “Indo-Pacific”
China’s “Belt and Road Initiative”
Neo-Mercantilism and Technological Spheres of Influence
The Global American Sphere of Influence
Conclusion
References and Further Reading
24: Regional Diplomacy and Its Variations: Change and Innovation
Introduction
Regionalism: Driving Impulses
Case Studies
African Union (AU)
BIMSTEC
Pacific Alliance
RO Typology
Innovation and Adaptation
The UN and Regionalism
Conclusions
An Excess of ROs
Calculated Focus
Political Targeting
Mutual Learning
ROs and Inclusivity
References and Further Reading
25: Why Collective Diplomacy Needs to Embrace Innovation
Introduction
The UN Secretariat in Upheaval and Departure
New Challenges and Opportunities in the Digital Era
New Solutions in the Area of Peace
AI Support of Digital Dialogues
Geodata Analysis for Conflict Prevention
Using Virtual Reality
Challenges and Opportunities of Innovating Collective Diplomacy
Final Considerations
Note
References and Further Reading
26: Innovating International Cooperation for Development: A New Model for Partnerships Between Developed and Middle-Income Countries
Middle-Income Countries’ Development Bottlenecks
Strengths of Middle-Income Countries for Development Partnerships with Donors
Size
Development Challenges
Social Policies
Infrastructure
Strengths for Partnerships
Education and Human Capital
Science, Technology, and Innovation
Private Sector Capabilities
The New Knowledge, Complementarity-Based Partnership Model (the “Triple Helix”)
Implications for Diplomatic Innovation
Conclusions
Methodological Disclosure
References and Further Reading
27: The UAE’s Innovative Diplomacy: How the Abraham Accords Changed (or Did Not Change) Emirati Foreign Policy
The Switzerland of the Middle East?
The Abraham Accords: A New Camp David?
Talking to Everyone
Global Diplomacy or Diplomacy of Global Events?
Making Good Use of “Soft Power”
From the Expo 2020 to the COP 28
The Blurred Borders Between Humanitarian Diplomacy and International Cooperation
Tolerance: a Political and Diplomatic Project
The COVID-19 Crisis: a Game-Changer?
References and Further Reading
Internet Resources
28: Small States: From Intuitive to Smart Diplomacy
Small States: “Lump of Weakness”?
How to Define States: Small, Smaller, and Micro?
Diplomacy Matters
Multilateralism Paved the Way for Small States: The WB5 Made Some Success
Montenegro: An Example of “Intuitive” Diplomacy
Toward Smart Diplomacy
Conclusion
References and Further Reading
29: Urban Diplomacy: How Cities Will Leverage Multilateralism
The Urban Planet
What Is Urban Diplomacy?
Political and Legal Development Differs According to Setting
Urban Diplomacy in Action
A Practical Orientation Allows for Identifying Outcomes
Conclusions
References and Further Reading
30: Reforming Global Health Diplomacy in the Wake of COVID-19
Introduction
What Is Global Health Diplomacy?
Beginnings and Early Achievements of Health Diplomacy
Financing of Global Public Health
Lessons from Recent Global Efforts in Response to Global Health Crises
HIV/AIDS: Stigmatization and Intellectual Property Issues
Gavi, CEPI, and Public-Private Models
SARS and IHR Revision: Sovereignty and Surveillance
H5N1 and the PIP Framework: Equity at Center Stage
H1N1: Stigmatization Redux
Ebola: Politics, Capabilities, and the WHO’s Health Emergencies Programme
Global Health Security Agenda: A Mutual Assistance Ad Hoc Group
COVID: Politics, Nationalism, and Vaccine Diplomacy
ACT Accelerator
Pandemic Treaty: Diplomacy to the Rescue or Politics Over Science?
Tackling the Challenges: The Axes of Reform in an Era of Disruption
Ensuring Consistent Political Engagement and Scientific Integrity
Reforming Health Financing
Strengthening Global Health Surveillance, Reporting, and Investigation
Enhancing Global Health Equity
Preparing Health Diplomats
Maintaining Diversity of Health Diplomacy Architecture
The New Health Diplomacy Entente
Addressing the Impact of Technological Advancement and Public Trust
Conclusion
References and Further Reading
31: The Reform of Humanitarian Diplomacy
Introduction
Establishing the Priorities of Humanitarian Diplomacy
Humanitarian Diplomacy as a Concept
Humanitarian Diplomacy as Practice
Weaponization of HD
Politicization of HD
Localization
Proposals
Conclusion
References and Further Reading
32: Geoeconomic Diplomacy: Reforming the Instrumentalization of Economic Interdependencies and Power
What is Geoeconomic Diplomacy and Why is It Important?
The EU: A Geoeconomic Contender with Governance Challenges
Facing Russia through Sanctions: Nascent Signs of European Reforms and Strengthened Transatlantic Cooperation
Facing China through Anti-coercion Measures: Innovative Bridges over the Trade-Security Gap
Looking Ahead: Ensuring Stakeholder Involvement in the Geoeconomic Field
References and Further Reading
33: Science Diplomacy with Diplomatic Relations to Facilitate Common-Interest Building
Considering Diplomatic Reform
Diplomatic Relations and Missions
National Security and Armed Conflict
Science Diplomacy to Negotiate Transformation
Conclusion
References and Further Reading
34: Climate Diplomacy for a 1.5 Degree World
The Multilateral Negotiations
Carbon Clubs and Trade
Clean Energy Innovation and Intellectual Property
Debt, Climate Finance, and the Finance Sector
Conclusion
References and Further Reading
35: Global Diplomacy and Multi-stakeholderism: Does the Promise of the 2030 Agenda Hold?
Multi-stakeholderism in Global Diplomacy of Sustainable Development and Beyond
Expectations of Innovation from the 2030 Agenda
Innovative Seeds for Inclusivity
Innovative Seeds for Integrated Policy-making
Innovative Seeds for Accountability
Persistent Contestations
The Way Forward
References and Further Reading
36: Conclusions
Index
