The Oxford Guide to the Romance Languages

Cover
The Oxford Guide to the Romance Languages
Copyright
Dedication
Short Contents
Detailed Contents
Series Preface
Abbreviations
The Contributors
Introduction
Plate Section
PART I: The Making of the Romance Languages
CHAPTER 1: Latin as a source for the Romance languages
1.1 Chronological and spatial scope of Latin
1.2 Classical and vulgar Latin
1.3 Changes in the vowel system from Latin to Romance
1.4 Development of the future tense
1.5 Lexicon
1.6 Sources of the Romance languages
CHAPTER 2: Latin and Romance in the medieval period: A sociophilological approach
2.1 Latin and Romance in the Middle Ages
2.2 Sociophilology
2.3 Writing
2.4 Writing Romance before written Romance was invented
2.5 ‘Vulgar’ Latin
2.6 Reading aloud
2.7 Written and spoken grammar
2.8 Words
2.9 The Carolingian reforms
2.10 Glossaries and glosses
2.11 Sociophilology and politics
CHAPTER 3: Early evidence and sources
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Early Romance texts: ‘pathways’ to vernacular writing traditions
3.2.1 In-scripturation: inserting Romance utterances in Latin texts
3.2.2 In-scripturalization I: pragmatic texts in professional contexts
3.2.3 In-scripturalization II: discourse traditions and cultural memory
3.3 Writing without focused norms: scriptae and koinés
3.4 From medieval manuscripts to linguistic data: pragmatic and sociolinguistic recontextualization
3.5 Final reflections
PART II: Typology and Classification
CHAPTER 4: A structural comparison of Latin and Romance
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Latin and Romance: some phenomenological comparisons
4.2.1 Vowels and diphthongs
4.2.2 Nominal morphology and case
4.2.3 Inflection and periphrasis
4.2.4 Conditionals and counterfactuals
4.2.5 Causatives
4.2.6 Non-finite forms
4.2.7 Complementation
4.2.8 Configurationality and analyticity
4.3 Which Latin? Which Romance?
4.4 Latin, Romance, and the languages of Europe
4.5 Final reflections
CHAPTER 5: Romance: A typological approach
5.1 Typologies of Romance languages
5.2 Areal typology: Standard Average European and the Romance languages
5.3 From Latin to Romance: typologically significant category losses and innovations
5.3.1 Determiners
5.3.2 Auxiliaries
5.3.3 Word order change
5.3.4 Sentence negation
5.3.5 The clitic pronoun system and its grammaticalization potential
5.3.6 Gender and number categories
CHAPTER 6: Classifications
6.1 Introduction: Dante’s idioma tripharium
6.2 Identifying the Romance languages
6.2.1 The beginnings of Romance linguistics
6.2.2 The case of Catalan
6.2.3 The case of Sardinian
6.2.4 The case of ‘invented’ languages: Francoprovençal and Raeto-Romance
6.2.5 Cultural dialects
6.3 Problems of internal classification: the case of Italian
6.4 Subdivisions of Romance
6.4.1 Phonetic reduction and stress type
6.4.2 The partitive
6.4.3 Verb morphosyntax: aoristic drift
6.5 Historical and typological criteria
6.5.1 History: the eastern and western Romània
6.5.2 Typology: types of vowel system
CHAPTER 7: Romance linguistic geography and dialectometry
7.1 Linguistic geography
7.1.1 Definition and origin
7.1.2 Jules Gilliéron and the ALF
7.1.3 The second generation of national atlases
7.1.3.1 AIS
7.1.3.2 ALI
7.1.3.3 WLAD and ALR
7.1.3.4 Atlas lingüístic de Catalunya
7.1.3.5 Atles lingüístic del domini català
7.1.3.6 Atlas lingüístico de la Península Ibérica
7.1.4 Gallo-Romance regional atlases
7.1.4.1 ‘Minor’ atlases
7.1.4.2 NALF and ALFR
7.1.4.3 Wallonia
7.1.5 Italo-Romance, Sardinian, and Raeto-Romance regional atlases
7.1.5.1 Regional Italo-Romance atlases
7.1.5.2 Raeto-Romance regional atlases
7.1.5.3 Sardinian atlases
7.1.6 Iberian atlases
7.1.7 Daco-Romance regional atlases
7.1.8 Pan-Romance linguistic atlases
7.1.9 Some guidelines for reading the maps in a linguistic atlas
7.1.10 Conclusion
7.2 Dialectometry
7.2.1 Theoretical, empirical, and methodological preliminaries
7.2.2 Dialectometrization of ALF and AIS
7.2.3 From the original (ALF and AIS) data to the data matrix
7.2.4 From the data matrix to the similarity and distance matrices
7.2.5 Graphic processing of the similarity and distance matrices
7.2.6 Similarity maps as a tool of dialectometry
7.2.6.1 Presentation and interpretation of Maps 7.13-7.16
7.2.7 Isoglottic (or interpunctual) synthesis as a tool of dialectometry
7.2.8 Parameter maps as a tool of dialectometry
7.2.8.1 Presentation and interpretation of Maps 7.19 and 7.20
7.2.9 Dendrographic dialectometry
7.2.10 Correlative dialectometry
7.2.11 Summary
PART III: Individual Structural Overviews
CHAPTER 8: Romanian, Istro-Romanian, Megleno-Romanian, and Aromanian
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Phonology
8.2.1 Vowels
8.2.2 Consonants
8.2.3 Prosody and syllable structure
8.3 Orthography and writing systems
8.4 Forms and functions of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs
8.4.1 Inflectional morphology of nouns and verbs
8.4.2 Major patterns of allomorphy caused by sound change
8.4.3 Nominal inflection
8.4.3.1 Case and number marking
8.4.3.2 Gender, gender marking, and the ‘neuter’
8.4.3.3 Vocative
8.4.4 Morphology of personal pronouns
8.4.4.1 Form and gender of pro-sentential pronouns
8.4.4.2 Clitics and their collocation
8.4.4.3 Address pronouns and related phenomena
8.4.5 Demonstratives and articles: forms and uses
8.4.6 Forms and functions of verbs
8.4.6.1 Inflection classes
8.4.6.2 Tense, mood, person, and number: synthetic and periphrastic forms
8.4.6.3 Aspect marking in Istro-Romanian and other sub-Danubian dialects
8.4.6.4 The Megleno-Romanian evidential
8.4.6.5 Non-finite forms and their functions: past participles, supines, gerunds, infinitives
8.4.6.6. ‘Feminization’ of the non-finite
8.4.7 Derivational morphology
8.4.8 Comparative and superlative structures
8.5 Syntax
8.5.1 Nominal group
8.5.1.1 Adjective position
8.5.1.2 Possessive constructions and ‘possessive’ article al
8.5.2 Verbal group
8.5.2.1 Basic word order in the sentence
8.5.2.2 Negation
8.5.2.3 Interrogation
8.5.2.4 Subordination and complementizers
8.5.2.5 Infinitives vs subjunctives in subordinate clauses
8.5.2.6 Relative clauses
8.5.2.7 Causative
8.5.2.8 Object marking and prepositional object marking
8.5.2.9 Coordinators
8.5.3 Adverb position
CHAPTER 9: Dalmatian
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Phonology
9.3 Inflectional morphology
9.4 Nominal group
9.5 Verbal group
9.6 The sentence
CHAPTER 10: Friulian
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Phonology
10.2.1 Vowel system
10.2.1.1 Stressed vowels
10.2.1.2 Unstressed vowels
10.2.2 Consonant system
10.3 Morphology
10.3.1 Inflectional morphology of nominal categories
10.3.1.1 Personal pronouns
10.3.2 Inflectional morphology of the verb
10.3.2.1 Tense and mood
10.3.2.2 Endings
10.3.3 Word formation processes
10.3.3.1 Derivation
10.3.3.2 Word formation processes: composition
10.4 Syntax
10.4.1 General features
10.4.2 Main clauses
10.4.3 Main and dependent interrogative clauses
10.4.3.1 Other structures with the enclisis of subject clitics
10.4.4 Auxiliaries and past participle agreement
CHAPTER 11: Ladin
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Historical observations
11.3 Phonetics and phonology
11.3.1 Vowel system
11.3.2 Consonant system
11.4 Morphology
11.4.1 Nominal system
11.4.2 Verb
11.5 Syntax
11.5.1 Noun phrase
11.5.2 Verb phrase
11.5.3 Sentence structure
11.5.4 Subordination
CHAPTER 12: Romansh (Rumantsch)
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Phonology
12.2.1 Vowels
12.2.2 Consonants
12.2.3 Prosody: syllable structure and stress
12.2.4 Alternations
12.3 Morphology
12.3.1 Inflection: nouns and adjectives
12.3.2 Inflection: verbs
12.3.3 Derivational morphology
12.4 Syntax
12.4.1 Nominal phrases
12.4.2 Verb phrases
12.4.2.1 Clitics
12.4.3 Clause structure
12.4.3.1 The inversion construction in main clauses
12.4.3.2 Inversion in other clause types
12.4.3.3 Impersonal subjects and the syntax of ins
12.4.3.4 Verb-second in Surmiran
CHAPTER 13: The dialects of northern Italy
13.1 External and linguistic history
13.1.1 Phenomena characterizing northern Italian dialects
13.2 Phonology
13.2.1 Suprasegmental phonology
13.2.2 Segmental phonology
13.3 Morphology
13.3.1 Nouns and adjectives
13.3.2 Verb morphology
13.3.2.1 Tenses
13.3.2.2 Person endings
13.3.2.3 Root alternations
13.3.2.4 Past participles
13.3.3 Word formation
13.3.4 Pronouns
13.3.5 Articles
13.3.6 Demonstratives
13.3.7 Possessives
13.3.8 Agreement in the nominal group
13.4 Sentence morphosyntax
13.4.1 Subject clitic pronouns
13.4.2 Wh-movement constructions
13.4.3 Negation
13.4.3.1 Negators
13.4.4 Auxiliaries
13.4.4.1 Double compound forms
13.4.6 Clitic areas
CHAPTER 14: Italian, Tuscan, and Corsican
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Phonology
14.2.1 Vowels
14.2.1.1 Tonic vowels
14.2.1.2 Atonic vowels
14.2.2 Consonants
14.2.2.1 Weakening
14.2.3 Syllable structure and phonotactics
14.2.4 Stress
14.2.5 Raddoppiamento fonosintattico
14.3 Morphology
14.3.1 Nominal group
14.3.1.1 Nouns and adjectives
14.3.1.2 Determiners and quantifiers
14.3.1.3 Pronouns
14.3.2 Verbal group
14.3.2.1 Verb roots
14.3.2.2 Inflection
14.4 Syntax
14.4.1 Nominal group
14.4.1.1 Pronominals
14.4.2 Verbal group
14.4.2.1 Tense, aspect, and mood
14.4.2.2 Voice
14.4.3 Clause
14.4.3.1 Sentence organization
14.4.3.2 Agreement
CHAPTER 15: The dialects of central Italy
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Area mediana stricto sensu
15.2.1 Phonology
15.2.1.1 Vowels
15.2.1.2 Consonants
15.2.2 Morphology
15.2.3 Syntax
15.3 Area perimediana
15.3.1 Phonology
15.3.1.1 Vowels
15.3.1.2 Consonants
15.3.2 Morphology
15.3.3 Syntax
CHAPTER 16: The dialects of southern Italy
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Phonology
16.2.1 Vowels
16.2.1.1 Tonic vowels
16.2.1.1.1 Metaphony and spontaneous diphthongization
16.2.1.2 Atonic vowels
16.2.2 Consonants
16.2.2.1 Obstruents
16.2.2.2 Sonorants
16.3 Morphology
16.3.1 Nominal group
16.3.1.1 Nouns and adjectives
16.3.1.2 Determiners and quantifiers
16.3.1.3 Pronouns
16.3.1.3.1 Tonic forms
16.3.1.3.2 Clitic forms
16.3.1.4 Possessives
16.3.2 Verbal group
16.3.2.1 Verb roots
16.3.2.2 Inflectional markers for TAM, person, and number
16.4 Syntax
16.4.1 Nominal group
16.4.1.1 Pronominals
16.4.1.1.1 Tonic pronouns
16.4.1.1.2 Clitics
16.4.2 Verbal group
16.4.2.1 Tense, aspect, and mood
16.4.2.2 Voice
16.4.3 Clause
16.4.3.1 Sentence organization
16.4.3.2 Auxiliary selection and participle agreement
16.4.3.3 Argument marking
16.4.3.4 Inflectional core
16.4.3.5 Left periphery
CHAPTER 17: Sardinian
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Phonology
17.2.1 Vowel system
17.2.2 Consonant system
17.2.3 Sandhi phenomena
17.2.4 Suprasegmental features
17.3 Morphology
17.3.1 Nominal inflection
17.3.2 Verbal inflection
17.3.3 Word formation
17.4 Syntax
17.4.1 Nominal group
17.4.2 Verbal group
17.4.3 Clause syntax
17.4.3.1 Basic properties of the clause
17.4.3.2 Valency-changing operations
17.4.3.3 Finite subordination
17.4.3.4 Non-finite constructions
17.4.3.5 Information structure
17.4.3.6 Illocutionary force
CHAPTER 18: French and northern Gallo-Romance
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Geography and demography of French
18.3 External and social history and periodization
18.4 Structure of French
18.4.1 Phonetics and phonology
18.4.1.1 Segmental phonology
18.4.1.1.1 Vowels
18.4.1.1.2 Glides
18.4.1.1.3 Liquids
18.4.1.1.4 Consonants
18.4.1.1.5 Typology and diachrony of segmental phonology
18.4.1.2 Prosody
18.4.1.3 Phonotactics
18.4.1.4 Syllable structure
18.4.1.5 Sandhi phenomena
18.4.1.5.1 Enchaînement
18.4.1.5.2 Liaison
18.4.1.5.3 Elision
18.4.1.5.4 H aspiré
18.4.2 Forms and their functions
18.4.2.1 Inflection
18.4.2.1.1 Noun morphology
18.4.2.1.1.1 NUMBER
18.4.2.1.1.2 GENDER
18.4.2.1.1.3 CASE
18.4.2.1.1.4 ABSENCE OF MORPHOLOGICAL DIMINUTIVES AND AUGMENTATIVES
18.4.2.1.2 Verb conjugation
18.4.2.1.2.1 MORPHOMIC STRUCTURE
18.4.2.1.2.2 TENSE AND ASPECT
18.4.2.1.2.3 MOOD
18.4.2.1.3 Determiners
18.4.2.1.4 Numerals and quantifiers
18.4.3 Syntax
18.4.3.1 Ordering of noun and adjective
18.4.3.2 Negation
18.4.3.3 Word order
18.4.3.3.1 Inversion and interrogation
18.4.3.3.2 Clitic pronouns
18.4.3.3.2.1 SUBJECT CLITICS
18.4.3.3.2.2 OBJECT CLITICS
18.4.3.3.3 Dislocation/detachment
18.4.3.3.4 Complementizer deletion and preposition stranding
18.4.4 Second person forms of address
18.5 (Other) oïl varieties
18.5.1 Internal divisions
18.5.2 Structure
18.5.2.1 Phonology
18.5.2.2 Forms and their functions
18.5.2.2.1 Inflection
18.5.2.2.2 Tense and aspect
18.5.2.3 Syntax
18.5.2.4 Second person forms of address
18.6 Typological reflections
CHAPTER 19: Southern Gallo-Romance (Occitan)
19.1 Introduction
19.1.1 Geography, history, and dialect areas
19.2 Phonology
19.2.1 Vowel system
19.2.1.1 Stressed vowels
19.2.1.1.1 Stressed vowels (variant patterns)
19.2.1.1.2 Diphthongs
19.2.1.2 Unstressed vowels
19.2.2 Consonant system
19.2.3 Syllabic structure
19.2.3.1 Syllable templates
19.2.3.2 Word-final position
19.2.3.3 Syllable structure and sentence phonetics
19.2.4 Stress
19.3 Morphology
19.3.1 Nominal morphology
19.3.1.1 Gender
19.3.1.2 Number
19.3.1.3 Case
19.3.1.4 Adjectives
19.3.1.5 Pronouns and determiners
19.3.1.5.1 Pronouns
19.3.1.5.2 Determiners
19.3.1.6 Derivational morphology of nominals
19.3.2 Verb morphology
19.3.2.1 Verb classes
19.3.2.2 Present tense and person marking
19.3.2.3 Verb stems
19.3.2.3.1 Tenses formed on the present indicative stem
19.3.2.3.1.1 INFINITIVE AND TENSES FORMED ON INFINITIVE (FUTURE AND CONDITIONAL)
19.3.2.3.2 Preterite and forms built on the preterite
19.3.2.3.3 Present subjunctive
19.4 Syntax
19.4.1 Subject clitics
19.4.2 Constituent order
19.4.2.1 Subject inversion
19.4.2.2 Topicalization and focalization
19.4.3 Enunciatives
19.4.4 Subordination and the complementizer que
19.4.4.1 Alternative subordination types
19.4.5 Object Clitics
19.4.6 Negation
19.4.7 Agreement
19.4.7.1 Subject–verb agreement
19.4.7.2 Sequences of (moods–)tenses
CHAPTER 20: Francoprovençal
20.1 Introduction
20.1.1 Linguistic history and geography
20.1.2 The name of the language
20.2 Phonetics
20.2.1 General
20.2.2 The twofold development of Latin stressed A in open syllables
20.2.3 Francoprovençal final unstressed vowels
20.2.4 The development of Ū
20.2.5 Stress shift
20.2.6 Diphthongization of stressed vowels in open syllables
20.2.7 Nasal vowels
20.2.8 Palatalization of velar consonants
20.3 Morphology and syntax
20.3.1 Nominal group
20.3.1.1 Remnants of a two-case system, maintenance of a functioning two-case system
20.3.1.2 Noun determiners: maintenance or neutralization of the masculine/feminine opposition in the plural
20.3.1.3 The partitive article or partitive de
20.3.1.4 Possessives
20.3.2 The pronominal system
20.3.2.1 Stressed personal pronouns
20.3.2.2 Subject clitics
20.3.2.3 Neuter subject and object
20.3.2.4 The neuter demonstrative pronoun
20.4 Elements of verb syntax and morphology
20.4.1 The split of the first conjugation
20.4.2 Present indicative
20.4.3 Imperfect indicative
20.4.4 Periphrastic tenses
20.4.5 Surcomposé forms
20.4.6 Future
20.4.7 The subjunctive
CHAPTER 21: Catalan
21.1 Introduction: external elements
21.1.1 Territory, geographical dialects,and demography
21.1.2 History
21.2 Salient diachronic features
21.2.1 Vowels
21.2.2 Consonants
21.2.3 Morphology
21.3 Phonology
21.3.1 Stressed vowels
21.3.2 Unstressed vowels: vowel reduction and its exceptions
21.3.3 Consonant inventory, dialectal variation, and allophones
21.3.4 Consonant deletion and assimilation
21.3.5 Voicing and devoicing
21.3.6 Syllable structure and stress
21.3.7 Orthography
21.4 Morphology
21.4.1 Nominal inflection
21.4.2 Verb inflection
21.4.3 Articles
21.4.4 Word formation
21.5 Syntax
21.5.1 Verbal clitics
21.5.2 Subject and objects
CHAPTER 22: Spanish, Astur-Leonese, Navarro-Aragonese, Judaeo-Spanish
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Phonology
22.2.1 Vowels
22.2.2 Consonants
22.2.2.1 Stops
22.2.2.2 Affricate /ʧ/
22.2.2.3 Fricatives
22.2.2.4 Nasals
22.2.2.5 Laterals
22.2.2.6 Rhotics
22.2.2.7 /ʝ/ and initial [w]-
22.2.3 Prosody
22.2.3.1 Syllable structure
22.2.3.2 Stress and rhythm
22.2.3.3 Intonation
22.2.4 Orthography
22.3 Morphology
22.3.1 Nominal group
22.3.1.1 Nouns and adjectives
22.3.1.2 Determiners, possessives, quantifiers, interrogatives
22.3.1.3 Pronouns
22.3.1.4 Count/non-count referential systems
22.3.2 Verbal group
22.3.2.1 Conjugations
22.3.2.2 Inflection
22.3.2.3 Verb roots
22.3.3 Derivational morphology
22.3.4 Other word-formation processes
22.4 Syntax
22.4.1 Nominal group
22.4.1.1 Pronominals
22.4.2 Verbal group
22.4.2.1 Tense, aspect, and mood
22.4.2.2 Copulas
22.4.2.3 Adverbs
22.4.2.4 Negation
22.4.2.5 Passive and middle voice
22.4.3 Clause
22.4.3.1 Prepositional accusative
22.4.3.2 Relative clauses
22.4.3.3 Dequeísmo/queísmo
22.4.3.4 Sentence organization and information structure
CHAPTER 23: Galician and Portuguese
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Phonology
23.2.1 Vowels
23.2.1.1 Stressed oral vowels
23.2.1.2 Unstressed oral vowels
23.2.1.3 Stressed oral falling diphthongs
23.2.1.4 Unstressed oral falling diphthongs
23.2.1.5 Stressed nasal vowels
23.2.1.6 Unstressed nasal vowels
23.2.1.7 Unstressed nasal falling diphthongs
23.2.1.8 Sandhi
23.2.2 Consonants
23.2.2.1 Fricatives, stops, and affricates
23.2.2.2 Liquids
23.2.2.3 Nasals
23.2.3 Syllable and phonotactics
23.2.4 Stress
23.2.4.1 Non-verb stress
23.2.4.2 Verb stress
23.3 Morphology
23.3.1 Nouns and adjectives
23.3.2 Personal pronouns
23.3.3 Determiners
23.3.3.1 Articles
23.3.3.2 Possessives
23.3.3.3 Indefinites
23.3.3.4 Demonstratives
23.3.4 Relatives, interrogatives, and exclamatives
23.3.5 Verbs
23.3.5.1 Conjugations
23.3.5.2 Roots
23.3.5.3 Thematic vowel
23.3.5.4 Tense, aspect, mood
23.3.5.5 Number and person
23.3.5.6 Compound forms and periphrases
23.3.6 Adverbs
23.3.7 Prepositions
23.4 Syntax
23.4.1 Order of major constituents
23.4.2 Agreement
23.4.3 Null arguments
23.4.3.1 Null subjects
23.4.3.2 Null objects
23.4.4 The expression of nominal internal arguments
23.4.4.1 Dative marking on direct objects
23.4.4.2 Double-object constructions
23.4.5 Fronting strategies and the structure of the left periphery
23.4.6 Se constructions
23.4.7 Pronominal syntax
23.4.7.1 Clitic placement with tensed verbs
23.4.7.2 Clitic placement with non-finite verbs
23.4.7.3 Clitic climbing
23.4.7.4 Interpolation
23.4.7.5 Clitic doubling
23.4.8 Sentential negation
23.4.9 Uses of the single tenses
23.4.10 Finite complementation
23.4.11 Non-finite complementation
23.4.12 Comparative clauses
23.4.13 Interrogative clauses
23.4.14 Relative clauses
23.4.15 Cleft sentences
23.4.16 Tough sentences
23.4.17 Noun phrases: definite determiners and bare nouns
CHAPTER 24: Creoles
24.1 Preliminary observation
24.2 Ibero-Romance-based creoles
24.2.1 Introduction
24.2.2 Phonology
24.2.3 Morphology
24.2.4 Morphosyntax
24.2.4.1 Noun phrase
24.2.4.1.1 Plural of the noun
24.2.4.1.2 Determiners
24.2.4.1.3 Personal pronouns
24.2.4.1.3.1 SUBJECT PRONOUNS
24.2.4.1.3.2 OBJECT PRONOUNS
24.2.4.2 Verb phrase
24.2.4.2.1 Tense, aspect, and mood
24.2.4.2.2 Copula
24.2.4.2.3 Serial verbs
24.2.4.2.3.1 DIRECTIONAL SERIAL VERBS
24.2.4.2.3.2 ‘GIVE’ SERIAL VERBS
24.2.4.3 The sentence
24.2.4.3.1 Word order in monotransitive sentences
24.2.4.3.2 Object marking in ditransitive constructions
24.2.4.3.3 Verb doubling in contrastive-focus constructions
24.3 French-based creoles
24.3.1 Introduction
24.3.2 Phonology
24.3.3 Morphology
24.3.4 Noun phrase
24.3.4.1 Plural of nouns
24.3.4.2 Determiners
24.3.4.3 Adjectives
24.3.4.4 Personal pronouns
24.3.5 Verb phrase
24.3.5.1 Tense, aspect, and mood
24.3.5.2 Copula
24.3.5.3 Serial verbs
24.3.6 Syntax
24.3.6.1 Word order in simple sentences
24.3.6.2 Valency-changing operations
24.3.6.3 Interrogative and focus constructions
PART IV: Comparative Overviews
A. Phonology
CHAPTER 25: Segmental phonology
25.1 Vowels
25.1.1 Inventories of stressed vowel phonemes
25.1.2 Vowel quantity
25.1.3 Nasal vowel phonemes and allophonic vowel nasalization
25.1.4 Unstressed vowels
25.1.5 Metaphony and vowel harmony
25.2 Consonants
25.2.1 Consonant inventories
25.2.2 Retroflex consonants
25.2.3 Palatal consonants and palatalization
25.2.4 Rhotics and rhotacism
25.2.5 Lenition and fortition
25.2.6 Assimilation processes
CHAPTER 26: Prosodic structure
26.1 Quantity
26.1.1 Vowel quantity and syllable structure
26.1.2 Consonant quantity
26.2 Phonological processes and syllable structure
26.2.1 Vowels
26.2.2 Consonants
26.3 Syllable structure
26.3.1 Onset
26.3.2 s+C clusters
26.3.3 Nucleus
26.3.3.1 Vowels
26.3.3.2 Diphthongs
26.3.4 Coda
26.3.5 Final remarks on syllable structure
26.4 Stress
26.5 Rhythm
26.6 Intonation
26.6.1 Statements
26.6.2 Narrow focus
26.6.3 Yes/no questions
26.6.4 Wh-questions
26.6.5 Imperatives
B. Morphology
CHAPTER 27: Inflectional morphology
27.1 General characteristics
27.2 Inflectional morphology of nouns and adjectives
27.3 Person and number marking in the verb
27.4 Tense (and aspect) marking
27.5 Mood: imperative and subjunctive
27.5.1 Imperative
27.5.2 Subjunctive
27.6 Synthetic future and conditional
27.7 Non-finite forms
27.8 Inflection classes
CHAPTER 28: Derivational morphology
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Where derivational patterns come from
28.3 Where derivational patterns go to
28.4 The main semantic categories of Romance affixation
28.4.1 Prefixation
28.4.2 Excursus on ‘parasynthesis’
28.4.3 Suffixation
28.5 ‘Non-canonical’ types of word formation
28.6 The fate of the Latin ‘third stem’ in Romance derivational morphology
28.7 Interfixes
CHAPTER 29: Compounding
29.1 Theoretical bases
29.1.1 What is considered a compound and what is its head?
29.1.2 Classification of Romance compounds in a cross-linguistic framework
29.2 Latin and Romance compounds
29.3 Overview of compounding in some Romance languages
29.3.1 Spanish
29.3.2 Catalan
29.3.3 French
29.3.4 Italian
29.3.5 Portuguese
29.3.6 Romanian
29.3.7 The case of Sardinian
29.4 Reduplication in Romance
29.4.1 Why reduplication?
29.4.2 What reduplication is not: iteration of phonemes and iteration of phrases
29.4.3 Morphological processes of iteration
29.5 Summary
C. Syntax
CHAPTER 30: The structure of the nominal group
30.1 Nouns
30.1.1 Functional features on nouns
30.1.2 Object-referring nouns
30.1.3 Event/result nouns
30.1.4 Relational nouns
30.1.5 Proper names
30.2 Adjectives
30.2.1 Functional features on adjectives
30.2.2 Relational adjectives
30.2.3 Descriptive adjectives
30.2.4 Determiner-like adjectives
30.2.5 Direct vs indirect modification
30.3 Determiners
30.3.1 Inflectional properties of determiners
30.3.2 Demonstratives
30.3.3 Articles
30.3.4 Quantifiers
30.4 Possessives
30.4.1 Possessive adjectives
30.4.2 Genitive possessives
30.5 The left periphery of the nominal group
CHAPTER 31: The structure of the clause
31.1 Overview of clause
31.2 Sentential core
31.2.1 Lower left periphery
31.2.2 Inflectional domain
31.2.2.1 Adverb classes and positions
31.2.2.2 Verb positions
31.2.2.3 Summary and conclusions
31.2.3 Restructuring
31.3 Higher left periphery
31.3.1 Complementizers
31.3.2 Illocutionary force, clause types, and sentence particles
31.3.2.1 Declaratives
31.3.2.2 Interrogatives
31.3.2.3 Exclamatives
31.3.2.4 Imperatives
31.3.3 Verb Second in old and modern Romance
31.3.4 Topic and focus in the left periphery
D. Semantics and Pragmatics
CHAPTER 32: Lexical stability and shared lexicon
32.1 General issues
32.2 Pan-Romance survivals and shared lexicon
32.2.1 Nouns in DÉRom list
32.2.2 Adjectives in DÉRom list
32.2.3 Verbs in DÉRom list
32.3 Lexical stability, shared lexicon, and semantic fields
32.3.1 Numerals
32.3.2 Kinship terminology
32.3.3 Colour terms
32.3.4 Body parts
32.3.5 Calendar terms
32.3.6 Domestic and wild animals
32.4 Relic words
32.5 Latinisms
CHAPTER 33: Onomasiological differentiation
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Motion and meteorological activity
33.2.1 Verbs of motion
33.2.2 Verbs and nouns of meteorological activity
33.3 Nouns
33.3.1 Body parts
33.3.2 Designations for human beings
33.3.3 Flora and fauna
33.3.4 Urbanization
33.4 Directional particles/prepositions
CHAPTER 34: Information and discourse structure
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Topic, focus, and sentence types
34.3 Sentence-focus structures
34.3.1 Unmarked word order
34.3.2 Verb–subject inversion
34.4 Predicate-focus structures and topicalization constructions
34.4.1 Clitic left-dislocation (ClLD) and hanging topic left-dislocation (HTLD)
34.4.2 Clitic right-dislocation (ClRD)
34.5 Argument-focus structures and focalization constructions
34.5.1 Postverbal focalization and cleft sentences
34.5.2 Contrastive-focus fronting
34.5.3 Information-focus fronting
34.5.4 Mirative fronting, verum-focus fronting, and QP fronting
E. Sociolinguistics
CHAPTER 35: Sociolinguistic variation
35.1 French
35.1.1 Context
35.1.2 Variationist studies
35.1.3 Sociolinguistic models and categories
35.1.4 Regional sociolinguistic variation
35.1.5 Hyperstyle variation
35.1.6 Variation and the banlieue
35.2 Italo-Romance
35.2.1 Sociolinguistic variables
35.2.2 Historical sociolinguistic variation
35.2.3 Recent standardizing and convergence trends
35.3 Spanish
35.3.1 Phonology
35.3.2 Morphosyntax
35.3.3 Forms of address
35.3.4 Standards and norms
35.3.4.1 National norms
35.3.4.2 Regional norms
CHAPTER 36: Diglossia
36.1 Introduction
36.2 The evolution of the concept of diglossia
36.3 Diglossia in the history of the Romance languages
36.3.1 The history of Romance languages and varieties in Europe
36.3.2 The history of Romance languages and varieties beyond Europe
36.4 Current dynamics in Romance variation and diglossia
36.4.1 The impact of globalization: universalism and particularism
36.4.2 Levelling
36.4.3 The revival of languages
36.4.4 Creating bilingualism
36.4.5 Hybrids and their function
36.5 The future of research on diglossia in Romance
CHAPTER 37: Standardization
37.1 Introduction
37.2 The choice of a basis for the standard
37.2.1 Identification with a geographical variant
37.2.2 Literary standards
37.2.3 Eclectic standards
37.2.4 Polynomic standards
37.2.5 Language names
37.3 The nature of codification
37.4 Elaboration
37.5 Support
37.6 Acceptance
37.7 The challenge of change and diaspora
37.8 Final observations
PART V: Issues in Romance Phonology
CHAPTER 38: Diphthongization
38.1 The data
38.2 The problem
38.3 The diphthongs in Italy
38.3.1 Tuscan
38.3.2 Northern Italy
38.3.3 Central and southern Italy
38.4 Opening diphthongs across the Romance languages
38.5 Coincidence or historical unity?
CHAPTER 39: Palatalization
39.1 Introduction
39.2 Latin yod
39.2.1 /tj, kj/
39.2.2 /gj, dj, j/
39.2.3 /sj/
39.2.4 /pj, bj, vj/
39.2.5 Sonorant consonant + /j/
39.2.6 Morphological consequences of palatalization by yod
39.3 Consonant + front vowel palatalization
39.3.1 Velar stop + front vowel
39.3.1.1 /gi, ge, gɛ/
39.3.1.2 /ki, ke, kɛ/
39.3.1.3 /kw, gw/ + front vowel
39.3.1.4 Velar stop + A
39.3.2 Non-dorsal consonant + front vowel
39.3.3 Morphological consequences of front vowel palatalization
39.4 Consonant + consonant palatalization
39.4.1 Consonant + /l/
39.4.2 Velar stop + coronal consonant
39.4.3 /ll, nn/
CHAPTER 40: Sandhi phenomena
40.1 Introduction
40.2 Phonologically conditioned sandhi
40.2.1 Vowel-edge phenomena
40.2.1.1 Vowel hiatus
40.2.1.2 Vowel-edge sandhi adjacent to pause
40.2.1.2.1 Prepausal
40.2.1.2.2 Postpausal
40.2.2 Consonant-edge phenomena
40.2.2.1 Left-edge sandhi
40.2.2.1.1 Lenition
40.2.2.1.1.1 LENITION WITH VOICING AND OPENING
40.2.2.1.1.2 LENITION WITH FRICATIVIZATION OR DETENSING WITH VOICING
40.2.2.1.2 Prosthesis
40.2.2.2 Right-edge sandhi
40.2.2.2.1 Assimilation-based sandhi
40.2.2.2.1.1 PHONATION
40.2.2.2.1.2 NASAL SANDHI
40.2.2.2.2 Syllabification-based sandhi
40.3 Morphosyntactically and lexically conditioned sandhi
40.3.1 Raddoppiamento fonosintattico
40.3.2 Liaison
40.3.2.1 Morphosyn
40.3.2.2 Phonological
40.3.2.3 Lexical
40.3.2.4 Sociolinguistic
40.3.3 Clitics
40.3.3.1 Sandhi in verb phrases
40.3.4 Sandhi in (preposition +) noun phrase
40.3.4.1 Article + noun
40.3.4.2 Preposition + noun phrase
40.4 Suprasegmental sandhi
CHAPTER 41: Writing Systems
41.1 Introduction
41.2 The Latin alphabet
41.3 Late Latin and early Romance
41.3.1 Two-norm hypotheses
41.3.2 The single-norm hypotheses
41.3.3 Logographic Latin
41.4 Textual zones for developing Romance
41.4.1 Selecting representational convention
41.4.2 Romance diacritic conventions
41.5 Romance writing in other scripts
41.5.1 Judaeo-Spanish/Ladino
41.5.2 Aljamía
41.5.3 Romanian and Moldovan
41.5.4 Romance written in the Greek alphabet
41.6 Levels of written representation
41.7 Developing written traditions
41.8 Stability, reform, and regulation
41.8.1 Regulatory bodies
41.8.2 Spelling reform
PART VI: Issues in Romance Morphology
CHAPTER 42: Number
42.1 Number in Latin and Romance
42.2 A rough typology of modern Romance plural marking
42.3 The desinences -e and -i
42.4 The remnants of Latin neuter plural -A
42.4.1 Number and gender
42.4.2 Lexically restricted remnants of plural -A
42.4.3 Morphosyntactically singular plurals in Romansh
42.4.4 The nature and fate of plural -ora
42.5 Invariance
42.6 Root allomorphy and suppletion
42.6.1 Allomorphy from sound change
42.6.2 Continuants of imparisyllabic nominatives
42.6.3 Suppletion
42.7 Mass nouns, set nouns, and ‘aberrant’ morphology
42.8 Borrowing and calquing
CHAPTER 43: Morphomes
43.1 Romance morphomes
43.2 Four major morphomic patterns
43.2.1 The ‘past participle’
43.2.2 Remnants of perfective morphology
43.2.3 The ‘L-pattern’ (‘U-pattern’)
43.2.4 The ‘N-pattern’
43.2.5 Morphomes outside the verb
43.3 Diachronic persistence of morphomes
43.4 Boundaries of morphomic phenomena
43.5 The case of the Romance future and conditional
43.6 Morphomes outside the inflectional paradigms?
CHAPTER 44: Tonic pronominal system: morphophonology
44.1 Introduction
44.2 Aspects of person marking from Latin to Romance
44.2.1 ‘Third person pronouns’: a Romance innovation
44.2.1.1 The category ‘third person pronoun’
44.2.2 Morphological competition in the history of Romance personal pronouns
44.2.2.1 Competition due to ‘case’ loss
44.2.2.2 Competition due to loss of semantic contrast between IPSE and ILLE
44.3 First and second person marking
44.3.1 Romance Type I
44.3.2 Romance Type II
44.3.3 Romance Type III
44.3.4 Romance Type IV
44.3.5 Romance Type V
44.3.6 Further issues
44.4 Third person marking
44.4.1 Non-canonical phenomena in Romance third person markers
44.4.1.1 Canonical inflection
44.4.2 Type I
44.4.3 Type II
44.4.4 Type III
44.4.5 Type IV (syncretic and suppletive)
CHAPTER 45: Clitic pronominal systems: morphophonology
45.1 Introduction
45.2 Morphology
45.2.1 Object clitics
45.2.2 Subject clitics
45.2.3 Possessives
45.2.4 Auxiliary clitics
45.3 Phonology
45.3.1 Stress
45.3.2 Vowel drop (elision, apocope, syncope)
45.3.3 Vowel insertion (prosthesis/epenthesis)
45.3.4 On l-: aphaeresis, vocalization, and palatalization
45.4 Cluster-internal phenomena
45.4.1 Order: generalities
45.4.2 Order of object clitics
45.4.3 Mutual exclusion patterns
45.4.4 Synthetic clusters
45.4.5 Vowel alternations
PART VII: Issues in Romance Syntax
CHAPTER 46: Functional categories
46.1 Rise of analyticity
46.2 Rise of configurationality
46.3 Romance functional categories
46.3.1 Nominal group
46.3.1.1 Articles
46.3.1.2 Other determiners
46.3.2 Verbal group
46.3.2.1 Romance auxiliaries
46.3.2.2 Romance synthetic future(-in-the-past)
46.3.2.3 Clitic pronouns
46.3.3 The sentence
46.3.3.1 Grammaticalized word orders
CHAPTER 47: Subject clitics: syntax
47.1 Introduction
47.2 Overview
47.2.1 The object of study
47.2.2 What counts as a subject clitic language?
47.3 Types of subject clitic
47.3.1 Person subject clitics
47.3.2 Number subject clitics
47.3.3 Deictic subject clitics
47.3.4 Invariable subject clitics
47.3.5 Summary
47.4 Syntactic environments
47.4.1 Lack of subject clitics in imperatives
47.4.2 Enclisis of subject clitics in interrogatives and other non-declarative clauses
47.4.3 Subject relative clauses
47.4.4 Expletive environments
47.4.5 Verb class
47.5 Subject clitic functions
47.5.1 Subject identification
47.5.1.1 Position of the subject
47.5.1.2 Type of subject
47.5.1.2.1 Null subject (pro)
47.5.1.2.2 Tonic pronoun
47.5.1.2.3 Full noun phrase
47.5.1.2.4 Quantifier phrases
47.5.1.2.5 Other
47.5.2 Functions unrelated to the identification of a subject
47.5.2.1 Place holders
47.5.2.1.1 Auxiliary clitics
47.5.2.1.2 The ‘OCL-for-SCL’ phenomenon
47.5.2.2 Left-peripheral functions
CHAPTER 48: Object clitics
48.1 Introduction
48.2 Basic facts
48.2.1 Distribution of object clitics in finite clauses
48.2.2 Licensing object-clitic positions
48.2.3 Person-case constraints
48.2.4 Distribution of object clitics in non-finite clauses
48.2.4.1 Infinitives
48.2.4.2 Past participles
48.2.4.3 Gerunds
48.3 Proclisis, enclisis, and mesoclisis
48.3.1 European Portuguese and Galician
48.3.2 Enclisis patterns in old Romance: the Tobler-Mussafia Law
48.3.3 Mesoclisis in old Romance
48.4 Clitic climbing
48.4.1 Clitic climbing and restructuring
48.4.2 Clitic climbing in causatives
48.4.3 Clitic climbing and auxiliaries
48.5 Clitic doubling
CHAPTER 49: Auxiliary selection and participial agreement
49.1 Introduction
49.2 Past participial agreement
49.2.1 Features involved in Romance past participial agreement
49.2.2 Target of past participial agreement
49.2.3 Conditions on participial agreement
49.2.4 Exceptional cases
49.3 Variation in auxiliary selection
49.3.1 Relevance of TAM for perfective auxiliation
49.3.2 A syntactic gradient for perfective auxiliation
49.3.3 Mixed auxiliation systems: unary, binary, or triple
49.3.4 Perfective auxiliation at the syntax–semantics interface
49.3.5 Some exceptional cases
PART VIII: Issues in Romance Syntax and Semantics
CHAPTER 50: Split intransitivity
50.1 Introduction
50.2 The advancement of active/inactive alignment
50.3 Split intransitivity and the north/south divide
50.4 Further split-intransitivity diagnostics in Romance
CHAPTER 51: Negation
51.1 Introduction
51.2 Form(s) and position(s) of the negative marker
51.2.1 Jespersen’s Cycle
51.2.2 Postverbal negators
51.2.2.1 Position of postverbal negators
51.2.2.2 Form of postverbal negators
51.2.3 New preverbal negative markers
51.3 Interaction between negation and verbal forms
51.3.1 Negation and modality
51.3.2 Negation and aspect
51.4 N-words and negative concord
51.5. Negation and focus
CHAPTER 52: Copular and existential constructions
52.1 Introduction
52.2 Copular constructions: attributive, locative, and possessive
52.3 Inverse copular constructions
52.4 Existential constructions
PART IX: Issues in Romance Pragmatics and Discourse
CHAPTER 53: Illocutionary force
53.1 Introduction: sentence typing and illocutionary force
53.2 Declarative sentential force
53.2.1 Gascon declarative particles
53.2.2 Marked declarative particles
53.3 Interrogative sentential force
53.3.1 Polar interrogatives (yes/no questions)
53.3.1.1 Intonation
53.3.1.2 Inversion
53.3.1.3 From inversion to interrogative inflection or interrogative particle
53.3.1.4 Marked VS orders
53.3.1.5 Special inversion patterns
53.3.1.6 Indirect polar interrogatives
53.3.2 Partial interrogatives (constituent questions)
53.3.2.1 General observations
53.3.2.2 The new syntax of wh-interrogatives in null-subject languages
53.3.2.3 The new syntax of wh-interrogatives in non-null-subject languages
53.3.2.4 Multiple wh-questions
53.3.2.5 Indirect wh-interrogatives
53.3.3 Question particles
53.4 Imperative sentential force
53.4.1 Affirmative imperatives
53.4.2 Negative imperatives
53.4.3 The jussive/hortative subjunctive
53.5 Exclamative sentential force
53.5.1 Total exclamatives
53.5.2 Partial exclamatives
53.5.2.1 Wh-exclamatives
53.5.2.2 Exclamative focus fronting
53.5.2.3 Exclamatives based on relativization
53.6 Optative sentential force
CHAPTER 54: Deixis
54.1 Demonstratives
54.1.1 Type B1(inary) systems
54.1.2 Type B1C(inary) systems
54.1.3 Type T1(ernary) systems
54.1.4 Type T2(ernary) systems
54.1.4.1 Type T2A(ernary) systems
54.1.5 Type B2(inary) systems
54.1.5.1 Type B2A(inary) systems
54.1.5.2 Type B2B(inary) systems
54.1.5.3 Type B2C(inary) mixed systems
54.1.6 Type T2B(ernary) systems
54.1.7 Type U(nary) systems
54.1.8 Summary
54.2 Spatio-personal adverbs
54.2.1 Type B1(inary) systems
54.2.2 Type T1(ernary) systems
54.2.3 Type B2(inary) systems
54.2.4 Type T2A(ernary) systems
54.2.5 Type T2B(ernary) systems
54.2.6 Type T3(ernary) systems
54.2.7 Type T4(ernary) systems
54.2.8 Type Q(uaternary) systems
54.2.9 Summary
54.3 General summary
CHAPTER 55: Address systems
55.1 Introduction
55.2 Alternations among bound forms of address
55.2.1 Social distribution
55.2.1.1 Choice of form
55.2.1.2 Choice of system
55.2.2 Terminology
55.2.3 Typology
55.2.3.1 Type I
55.2.3.2 Type II
55.2.3.3 Type III
55.2.3.3.1 Formal and functional clash
55.2.3.4 Mixing of Types II and III
55.2.3.5 Type IV
55.3 Free forms of address
55.3.1 Syntax and pragmatics
55.3.2 Morphological marking
55.3.3 Morphophonological patterns
55.4 ‘Inverse address’
PART X: Case Studies
A. The nominal group
CHAPTER 56: Case
56.1 Introduction
56.2 Nominal and pronominal inflection
56.2.1 Inflection of nouns (and adjectives)
56.2.1.1 Latin case forms inherited in Romance
56.2.1.2 ‘Extended’ accusative
56.2.1.3 Case systems in Romance
56.2.1.4 Case forms without case marking
56.2.2 Case inflection of pronouns (and determiners)
56.3 Substitutes for case inflection
56.3.1 Determiners and case
56.3.2 Use of prepositions and other dedicated case markers
56.3.2.1 Analytic genitives
56.3.2.2 Partitives and pseudopartitives
56.3.2.3 Analytic datives
56.3.2.4 Prepositional accusatives: differential object marking
56.3.3 Cliticization and clitic doubling
56.3.3.1 Cliticization of the core arguments
56.3.3.2 Clitic doubling
CHAPTER 57: Gender
57.1 Introduction
57.2 Gender assignment
57.2.1 Semantic rules
57.2.2 Formal rules
57.3 Gender systems
57.3.1 A closer look at two-gender systems
57.3.2 Romanian and other three-gender systems
57.3.3 Four-gender systems
57.4 Mass/count and gender
57.5 Some exceptional cases
B. The verbal group
CHAPTER 58: Tense and aspect
58.1 Introduction
58.2 Temporal and aspectual values in present and past ‘simple’ tenses
58.2.1 The Present: temporal and aspectual flexibility
58.2.2 Perfective and imperfective pasts
58.2.3 The Simple Past and its analytic competitors
58.3 Compound forms: resultatives, perfects, and perfectives
58.3.1 Resultative constructions
58.3.2 The ‘aoristic drift’
58.3.3 Specialized perfects
58.3.3.1 Inclusive only
58.3.3.2 Experiential only?
58.3.4 Competing Pluperfects and doubly compound forms
58.4 Aspectual and phasal periphrases
58.4.1 Progressive periphrases: state-PROG
58.4.2 Progressive periphrasis: motion-PROG
58.4.3 Habitual and phasal periphrases
58.5 Futures: tense interacting with modality
58.5.1 A rich variety of forms
58.5.2 Future situations: modal uncertainty and prospectivity
58.5.3 Futures-in-the-past
CHAPTER 59: Mood
59.1 Introduction
59.2 The exponence of mood
59.3 Indicative vs subjunctive contexts
59.3.1 Independent uses of the subjunctive
59.3.2 Mood distribution in embedded domains
59.3.2.1 Subjunctive types
59.3.2.2 Argument clauses
59.3.2.3 Relative clauses
59.3.2.4 Adverbial clauses
59.3.2.4.1 Purpose clauses
59.3.2.4.2 Temporal clauses
59.3.2.4.3 Conditional clauses
59.3.2.4.4 Concessive and concessive conditional clauses
59.4 Subjunctive-triggered phenomena
59.4.1 Long-distance anaphora
59.4.2 Complementizer deletion
CHAPTER 60: Voice
60.1 Introduction
60.2 Voice and transitivity
60.3 Voice and argument linking in the transition to Romance
60.3.1 Voice distinctions in late Latin
60.3.2 Marking and linking of core arguments
60.3.3 Passive auxiliaries in the transition to Romance
60.4 Voice systems in Romance: synchronic and diachronic issues
60.4.1 Reflexive constructions
60.4.1.1 Reflexives and middles/anticausatives
60.4.1.2 Passive and impersonal/indefinite reflexives
60.4.1.2.1 Passive vs impersonal/indefinite reflexives: morphosyntactic and pragmatic constraints
60.4.1.3 Grammatical domains
60.4.1.4 Nature of the subject
60.4.1.5 Temporal-aspectual constraints
60.4.1.6 Interpretation of impersonal SE
60.5 Passive and impersonal periphrases
60.5.1 Constraints and variation
60.5.2 Other passive-like/impersonal constructions
60.5.3 Impersonal passives
60.5.4 Impersonal actives
60.6 Other impersonal constructions
60.7 Indefinite markers
CHAPTER 61: Complex predicates
61.1 Romance complex predicates
61.2 Perception verbs
61.3 Causative constructions
61.3.1 LAXARE causatives
61.3.2 MANDARE causatives
61.3.3 FACERE causatives
61.3.3.1 Faire-par causative
61.3.3.2 Faire-infinitif causative
61.3.3.2.1 Argument structure properties
61.3.3.2.1.1 SEMANTIC PROPERTIES OF S2
61.3.3.2.1.2 SEMANTIC PROPERTIES OF S1
61.3.3.2.1.3 NULL SUBJECTS
61.3.3.2.1.4 AVAILABILITY OF ANAPHORS BOUND BY S1
61.3.3.2.1.5 THE DISTRIBUTION OF ANAPHORS BOUND BY S2
61.3.3.2.1.6 RESTRUCTURING IN CAUSATIVE/PERCEPTION CONSTRUCTIONS
61.3.3.2.1.6.1 THE SIZE OF THE COMPLEMENT
61.3.3.2.1.6.2 CLITIC CLIMBING
61.3.3.2.1.6.3 LONG OBJECT MOVEMENT
61.3.3.2.1.6.4 PASSIVIZATION
61.3.3.2.1.6.5 AUXILIARY SELECTION
61.3.3.2.1.7 OTHER RELEVANT ISSUES
61.3.3.2.1.7.1 PAST PARTICIPLE AGREEMENT
61.3.3.2.1.7.2 TRANSITIVITY AND DITRANSITIVES
61.3.3.2.1.7.3 DIACHRONIC DEVELOPMENT
C. The clause
CHAPTER 62: Word order
62.1 Phrasal word order
62.1.1 Noun phrases
62.1.2 Adjectival and adverbial phrases
62.1.3 Prepositional phrases
62.2 The sentence
62.3 Subject positions
62.4 Marked orders
62.4.1 Topicalization
62.4.2 Focalization
62.4.3 Marginalization
62.5 Medieval Romance Verb Second (V2)
62.5.1 Modern Romance continuations
62.5.2 Residues
62.6 Extractions
62.6.1 Extraction of complements
62.6.2 Extraction of modifiers
62.7 Scrambling
CHAPTER 63: Clausal complementation
63.1 Preliminary assumptions
63.2 The general Romance complementation pattern
63.2.1 Full clausal complements
63.2.1.1 Inflected and personal infinitives
63.2.1.2 Dual-complementizer systems
63.2.1.3 Recomplementation
63.2.1.4 C(omplementizer)-drop
63.2.2 Reduced and VP clausal complements
63.2.3 From Latin to Romance: an overview
63.3 Balkan-style complementation
63.4 Paratactic complementation
CHAPTER 64: Relative clauses
64.1 Introduction
64.2 The paradigm of relativizers in Romance
64.2.1 General remarks
64.2.2 Overview of (standard) Romance relativizers
64.3 Development of relativizers in Romance
64.4 The ‘gap’ and the ‘resumptive pronoun’ strategy
References
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS
Index