This book argues that the backsliding or stagnation of democracy should be interpreted in a wider perspective on irregular movements towards and away from contemporary liberal democracy. This a perspective couched by a metaphor, namely the 'pendulum of democracy', which the author has constructed to suggest that democratic regimes may swing between a democratic end (fully developed liberal democracy) and a semi-authoritarian end (competitive authoritarianism). The pendulum does not have a predictable frequency. Democratization may lead to irregular movements back and forth. It is easier to analyze such movements of the pendulum when democracy is not consolidated yet (for instance, in the three post-Yugoslav political regimes mentioned above), as democratic institutions and processes are not yet stable. For this reason, this book analyses the swing of unconsolidated democracy away from the democratic end in the cases of today’s Serbia and Montenegro and the swing back towards liberal democracy in the case of North Macedonia which - until 2017 - had been developing into a competitive authoritarian regime, but then embarked on the road to democratic recovery.
Author(s): Dimitri A. Sotiropoulos
Publisher: Palgrave Macmillan
Year: 2023
Language: English
Pages: 416
City: Cham
Preface
Acknowledgements
About This Book
Contents
About the Author
Abbreviations
List of Figures
List of Tables
1 Introduction
1.1 The Book’s Main Research Question
1.2 The Shifts and Turns of Democratization
1.3 The Book’s Argument
1.4 Strategies of Governing Elites
1.5 Comparative Evidence of Democracy’s Backsliding in Eastern and Southeastern Europe
An Example of Reversal of the Pendulum’s Movement
1.6 A Theoretical Framework: Macroscopic Analysis and Cases Studies of Politics
Assumptions About Politics, Society, Time, and Space
1.7 Theoretical Approaches to the Backsliding of Democracy
1.8 Theoretical Approaches to State-Society Relations
Conceptualizing State-Society Relations
State-Society Relations in Comparative Perspective
Three Types of State-Society Relations: Populism, Clientelism, Corruption
1.9 Research Design, Case Selection and Data Sources
Case Selection
North Macedonia
Montenegro
Serbia
Data Sources
1.10 Outline of the Book’s Chapters and Conclusion
1.11 Conclusions
Bibliography
2 Populism, Clientelism and Corruption and the International Crisis of Democracy
2.1 The International Crisis of Democracy
Earlier Concerns with Incomplete Democratization and the Quality of Democracy
2.2 Alternative Explanations for the Backsliding of Democracy
A Repertoire of Strategies of Backsliding
2.3 Populism as a Variety of State-Society Relations
2.4 Clientelism as a Variety of State-Society Relations
2.5 Corruption as a Variety of State-Society Relations
Domestic State-Society Relations and External Actors
2.6 The Negative Impact of Populism, Clientelism and Democracy
2.7 Re-using, Misusing and Abusing Democratic Institutions
2.8 Conclusions
Bibliography
3 The Pendulum of Democracy in Post-Yugoslav Successor States: Causes of the Backsliding of Democracy
3.1 The Pendulum of Democracy in Serbia
3.2 The Pendulum of Democracy in Montenegro
3.3 The Pendulum of Democracy in North Macedonia
3.4 Ethnic Tensions and Democracy
3.5 Alternative Explanations for Democracy’s Backsliding in Post-Yugoslav Successor States
Authoritarian Regime Type and Mode of Extrication from State Socialism
Economic Development and Democracy
Capitalist Globalization and Neoliberalism
The Impact of the European Union
The Recent and Contemporary Political Conjuncture
3.6 Four Recent Approaches to Democracy’s Backsliding in the Western Balkans
Bieber’s View
Dolenec’s View
Ramet’s View
Milačić’s View
3.7 Conclusions: Beyond Recent Approaches to Democracy’s Backsliding in the Western Balkans
Bibliography
4 Economy, Culture and the Party System: Preconditions for State-Society Relations Eroding Democracy
4.1 The Socio-Economic Context as Explanatory Framework for Democracy’s Erosion
The Macro-Economic and Fiscal Context of West Balkan Democracies
Incomes and Labour Market Context
Income Inequality, Poverty and Social Exclusion
Overview of the Social and Economic Context of Post-Yugoslav Successor States
4.2 The Cultural and Ideological Context as Explanatory Framework for Democracy’s Erosion
The EU and Mixed Political Ideologies in the Region
4.3 The Political Party System as an Explanatory Framework for Democracy’s Erosion
4.4 Conclusions
Bibliography
5 Populism as a Type of State-Society Relation Eroding Democracy
5.1 Democracy and Authoritarianism in Post-Yugoslav Successor States
5.2 Translating Electoral Victory into a Control of Democratic Institutions
5.3 The Case of North Macedonia
The Overall Political Context
Gruevski’s Populist Political Discourse
The Elective Affinity Between Populism and Nationalism
The VMRO-DPMNE Populist Party and Government Organization
The Social Bases of VMRO-DPMNE’s Populism
5.4 The Case of Serbia
The Overall Political Context
Strengthening SNS Rule
Failures of the Local Opposition to the SNS
Constraints on Freedom of Expression and Media Freedom
Populist Discourse, Party Organization and Social Bases of the SNS
Vučić’s Populism: Political Discourse
The SNS Populist Party and Government Organization
The Social Bases of SNS Populism
5.5 The Case of Montenegro
The Overall Political Context
Populist Opposition
5.6 Conclusions
Bibliography
6 Political Clientelism as a Type of State-Society Relation Eroding Democracy
6.1 Public Employment in Post-Yugoslav Successor States
6.2 Clientelism as a Type of State-Society Relation
6.3 Clientelism at the Top Level and Public Policy Capture
Clientelism at the Top and Policy Capture in Serbia
Clientelism at the Top and Policy Capture in Montenegro
Clientelism at the Top and Policy Capture in North Macedonia
6.4 Clientelism at the Middle Level
6.5 Clientelism at the Bottom Level
Family Networks and Political Party Networks
Clientelism at the Bottom in Serbia
Clientelism at the Bottom in Montenegro
Clientelism at the Bottom in North Macedonia
6.6 Conclusions
Bibliography
7 Political Corruption as a Type of State-Society Relation Eroding Democracy
7.1 Political Corruption as a Type of State-Society Relation
7.2 Forms and Explanations of Corruption
7.3 The Failure of Anti-Corruption Policy in Post-Yugoslav Successor States
Serbia
North Macedonia
Anti-Corruption Under the Zaev Government, 2017–2022
Montenegro
Corruption and Anti-Corruption in Montenegro After the Fall of the DPS Government
7.4 The Political Function of Corruption: Corrupt Practices as a Means to Consolidate Political Power
7.5 The Economic Function of Corruption: Corrupt Practices as a Means for Personal Enrichment
7.6 Conclusions
Bibliography
8 How Elected Governments Make Democracies Backslide: The Case of Serbia
8.1 Elections
Political Protests
8.2 Parliament
8.3 The Justice System
The Meanders of Constitutional Reform of the Serbian judiciary’s Composition and Independence
8.4 Independent Authorities
8.5 Mass Media
Reported by Freedom House
8.6 Civil Society
The Drive to Control Civil Society “from Above”
Civil Society’s Resistance “from Below”
8.7 The Political Management of the Covid-19 Crisis
8.8 Conclusions
Bibliography
9 How Elected Governments Make Democracies Backslide: The Case of Montenegro
9.1 Elections
Electoral Abuses
Elections and Governance in Montenegro in 2016–2019
Đukanović
DPS-Led Government Coalitions
The Formation in 2020 of the First Coalition Government Without the DPS as Partner
After the Fall of the First Non-DPS Government
9.2 Parliament
9.3 The Justice System
9.4 Independent Authorities
9.5 The Mass Media
9.6 Civil Society
9.7 The Political Management of the Covid-10 Crisis
9.8 Conclusion
Bibliography
10 How Elected Governments Make Democracies Backslide: The Case of North Macedonia
10.1 Elections and Domestic Political Developments until 2022
Electoral Abuses in 2006–2015
The Turning Point of 2015–2016
Political Developments in North Macedonia After Gruevski
A Protracted Transition from Gruevski’s Rule
Progress in North Macedonia’s Foreign Relations and Its Impact on Domestic Politics
Elections Consolidating Political Change in North Macedonia
The Fall of Zaev from Power
North Macedonian Politics After Zaev
10.2 The Parliament
10.3 The Justice System
The State Audit Office
The Judicial Council (JC)
10.4 Indpendent Authorities
10.5 Mass Media
10.6 Civil Society
10.7 The Political Management of the Covid-19 Crisis
10.8 Conclusions
Bibliography
11 Prolonging or Halting Democratic Erosion in Serbia, Montenegro and North Macedonia: A Comparison
11.1 Party Politics and Erosion of Democracy in the Post-Yugoslav Successor States
11.2 A Balkan Model of Authoritarianism?
11.3 Opposition Political Parties and democracy’s Backsliding
The Role of International Community
11.4 Comparing Populism, Clientelism and Corruption in the Three Cases
11.5 Conclusions
Bibliography
12 Conclusions
12.1 The Irregular Pendulum of Democracy
12.2 State-Society Relations in Three Post-Yugoslav Successor States
The Context of Democracy’s Backsliding
Variable Routes to the Erosion of Democracy and a Chance to Halt It
Why It is Hard to Curb Populism, Clientelism and Corruption in Post-Yugoslavia
12.3 Why Populism, Cleintelism and Corruption Matter in Explaining the Erosion of Democracy
The Importance of Political Socialization
Interactions Between Political Elites and the People
12.4 Concluding Thoughts
Bibliography
List of Interviews and Online Exchanges / Online Meetings
Index
