The Invisible Woman: Gender, Crime and Justice

Preface and Acknowledgments
New to This Edition
About the Author
PART I • Introduction
Chapter 1 • Gendering Criminology Through an Intersectional Lens
Diversity Among Women and Girls
What Is Feminism?
Women and Girls’ Invisibility
Women and Girls as Offenders
Women and Girls as Victims
Women as Professionals in the Criminal Legal System
Blurring of Boundaries of Women’s Experiences in Crime
Sex Versus Gender
What Are Feminist Methods?
The Effect of Societal Images on Women Regarding Crime
Summary
PART II • Women and Girls’ Offending
Chapter 2 • Theories Part I: Positivist, Evolutionary, Strain, Differential Association, Social Control, and Women’s Emancipation Theories
The Original and Positivist Studies
Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909)
W. I. Thomas (1863–1947), Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), and Otto Pollak (1908–1998)
The Legacies of the Positivist Theorists From the 1960s and 1970s
Biosocial and Evolutionary (Psychological) Theories (BSETs)
BSET as an Explanation of Sexual Abuse
BSET as an Explanation of Intimate Partner Abuse (IPA)
Feminist and Other Responses to the Application of BSET to Gender-Based Abuses
Strain Theories
Traditional Strain Theory (TST)
Opportunity Theory (OT)
General Strain Theory (GST)
Differential Association Theory (DAT) and Social Learning Theory (SLT)
Differential Association Theory (DAT)
Social Learning Theory (SLT)
Social Control Theories (SCTs)
Social Bond Theory (SBT): Conventional Ties
A General Theory of Crime (GTC): Self-Control
Power-Control Theory (PCT): Gendered Practices of Parents and Parenting
Women’s Liberation/Emancipation Hypothesis (WLEH)
Summary
Chapter 3 • Theories Part II: Critical, Labeling, Cycle of Violence, Life Course, Pathways, and Masculinity Theories
Agency and Resiliency
Critical Theories
Critical Criminology Theory (CCT)
Critical Race Theory (CRT)
Critical Race Feminist Theory (CRFT)
Labeling Theory (LT)
Advancing LT
Gender Applications of LT
Developmental and Adverse Life Events Theories
Cycle of Violence Theory (CVT)
Life Course Theory (LCT)
Pathways Theory (PT)
Studies Consistent With PT That Preceded the Naming of PT
Patterns and Advancement of PT
Masculinity Theory (MT)
Summary
Chapter 4 • Accounting for Gender–Crime Patterns
Measuring Crime
2009–2018 Arrest Rates From the UCR
Documenting and Assessing Gender Patterns in Offending Over Time
The Roles of Gender Regarding Co-Offenders, Age, Race, Class, Sexuality, and Mental Illness
Co-Offending
Age and Juvenile Delinquency
Intersections With Race/Ethnicity and Class
Sexuality and Gender Identity
Serious Mental Illness (SMI)
Summary
Chapter 5 • The Context of Women and Girls’ Offending for Specific Crimes
Drugs and Alcohol: Substance Use, Abuse, and Selling (SUAS)
Acquiring and Reasons for Trying and Using Substances
Theft, Burglary, and Robbery
Theft
Burglary
Robbery
White-Collar Crimes (WCCs)
Sex Work and Prostitution
Aggression and Assault
Child Abductions/Kidnappings
Homicides
Intimate Partner Homicides (IPHs)
Filicides
Girls and Women in Gangs
A Brief History of Feminist Gang Scholarship
Gangs and Criminal Behavior
Why Girls Join Gangs
How Boys in Gangs Treat Girls in Gangs
Bargaining With Patriarchy
Summary
Chapter 6 • Processing Women and Girls in the Criminal Legal System
Hypotheses of Gender Discrimination in the CLS
Chivalry Is Complicated
The Legacy of Racism and Confounding Measures of Race/Ethnicity
Criminal Laws and Gender Discrimination
Three Means of Gender Discrimination in Criminal Laws
The Muncy Act and Legacy in Indeterminate Criminal Sentencing Laws
Processing Youthful Defendants/Offenders
Reforms in the Processing of Youthful Defendants as Status Offenders
Non-Status Offense Delinquency
Empirical Findings on Gender Differences in Adult Crime Processing
The Presence of Gender Bias in the Various Stages of the Adult CLS
Gender Differences in Crime Processing Based on the Type of Offense
Chivalry Remains Complicated
Extralegal and Cultural Variables and Support for the Chivalrous Corollary Selectivity Hypothesis
Summary
Chapter 7 • Incarcerating, Punishing, and “Treating” Offending Women and Girls
The History of Incarcerating Women and Girls
Punishment
Women’s Prison Reform
Sex-Segregated Custodial Prisons
Racist Segregation and Treatment in Institutions for Girls and Women
Women’s Prisons Since the 1960s
Rates of Incarceration
Gender Comparisons in Incarceration Rates Over Time
Gender Comparisons in Incarceration Offenses
The Significance yet Invisibility in U.S. Incarceration Data on the Intersections of Gender, Race/Ethnicity, and Class
The Women’s Prison Regime
Parenthood: A Gender Difference Among Prisoners
Impacts on the Children of Incarcerated Mothers
Losing Custody/Children
Prison Nurseries
Educational, Vocational, and Recreational Programs
Health Needs and Access to Services
HIV/AIDS
Breast, Gynecological, Prenatal, Pregnancy, and Postpartum Health Care
The “Window on the Body” and Dental Health
Incarcerated Women and Girls With Disabilities
Mental Health Problems
The Prison Subculture
Sexual Abuse of Women and Girls While Incarcerated
Summary
PART III • Gender-based Abuse
Chapter 8 • Gender-Based Abuse (GBA)
Defining Gender-Based Abuse (GBA)
The Development of GBA as a Social Problem and Its Relationship to Depression
The Wide Range of GBAs
Culture, Gender Inequality, and GBA
The Significance of a Sexist Culture
The Culture of Victim-Blaming and GBA
The Relationship Between Gender Inequality and GBA
Rates of GBA and the Fear of Crime
Focusing on Intersectional GBA: The History and Its Legacy
Trafficking
Corporate and Environmental GBA
Breast Implant GBA
Egg Donor GBA
Environmental/Green GBA
Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls (MMIWG)
What Does Feminist Reform Look Like?
Summary
Chapter 9 • Focusing on Sexual Abuse
Defining Sexual Abuse
Consent, Coercion, and Force
Drug and Alcohol Facilitated Sexual Abuse (DAFSA)
Historical Developments in Defining Rape and Other Sexual Abuses
Another Look at Rape Myths and a Rape Culture
Statistics on Sexual Abuse
Child Sexual Abuse (CSA)
College Sexual Abuse
Marital/Spousal/Partner Rape
Sexual Harassment
Street Harassment
From Professor Anita Hill to Hollywood
Sexual Harassment Victim–Offender Relationships
Impacts of Sexual Harassment
Sexual Abuse and the Criminal Legal System (CLS)
Police, Prosecutor, and Court Obsessions With Survivors’ Characteristics and Behaviors
Survivors’ Participation With the CLS
Sexual Assault Kits (SAKs)
Survivors’ Wishes and Rights
In-Prison Sexual Abuse
The Myths Surrounding False Rape Charges
The Police
The Court Process, or Whose Trial Is It Anyway?
Nonprofit Agencies Designed to Assist Sexual Abuse Survivors
Summary
Chapter 10 • Intimate Partner Abuse (IPA) and Stalking
Defining Intimate Partner Abuse (IPA) and Stalking
Defining Intimate Partner Abuse (IPA)
Defining Stalking
The Significance of Coercion/Coercive Control
IPA Tactics
Physical IPA
Sexual IPA
Pregnancy IPA
Psychological/Emotional Abuse
The Additional IPA Tactics Based on Further Marginality
Stalking Tactics
The Historical Identification of IPA and Stalking as Social Problems
The Frequency of IPA and Stalking
IPA Rates
Stalking Rates
Walker’s Cycle Theory of Violence
IPA and Stalking Abusers
Who Are the Intimate Partner Abusers?
Who Are the Stalkers?
IPA and Stalking Victims/Survivors
Inhibitors to Leaving/Returning to an Abusive Relationship and What Helps Survivors Leave
Risk Factors for Staying With and Leaving IP Abusers
Characteristics Related to IPA Survivors’ Staying/Leaving Decisions
IPA and Stalking and the Criminal Legal System (CLS)
The Police
Protection/Restraining Orders (POs)
The Courts
Nonprofit Agencies and Laws Designed to Assist IPA and Stalking Survivors
Summary
PART IV • Women Working in the Criminal Legal system
Chapter 11 • Women Working in Prisons and Jails
A Brief History of Sex/Gender Discrimination in the Paid Labor Force
Comparing Racial and Gender Workplace Discrimination
The Matron Role: Women’s Breaking Into CLS Jobs Through Sexist Stereotypical Positions
Women as Token Workers
Women Trailblazers
The Significant Role of Legislative and Court Rulings on Women’s Work in the CLS
Prisoner Privacy and Prison Safety: Legal Resistance to Women Guards
Women Guards’ Assumed Threat to Prison Security/Safety
(Men) Prisoners’ Rights to Privacy
Gender Similarities and Differences in Guards’ Job Performance and Attitudes
Resistance to Women Guards and Guards’ Views of Gender and the Job
Job Performance and Attitudes
Job Satisfaction and Stress
Summary
Chapter 12 • Women Working in Policing and Law Enforcement
What Is Policing?
Women Breaking Into Police Work
Comparisons Between Women Breaking Into Policing With Women Breaking Into Prison/Jail Work
Phases and Stages of Women’s Entry Into Policing
The First Women Police in the United States and Globally
Police Officer Identities
Title VII and Other Legislation and Policies
Resistance to Women in Policing
Sexual Harassment
Gender and Stress
Gender Differences in Job Performance
Classifications of Women Police Officers
Women’s Representation in Policing
Recruitment and Retention
Promotion
The Intersection of Racism and Sexual Identity With Gender and Sexism
Racism
Heterosexism/Homophobia/Transphobia
Summary
Chapter 13 • Women Working in the Courts
The History of Women on Juries
The History of Women’s Access to Legal Education and Training
(Mostly White) Women’s Entry Into Legal Education and Practice
Women of Color’s Entry Into Legal Education and Practice
Women in Law Schools Since the 1950s
Women Attorneys
The Number of Women Attorneys
The Experiences of Women Attorneys
Gender Differences in Job Performance
Hiring, Job Placements, Retention, and Attrition: Leaky Pipes and Glass Ceilings
The Gendered Implications of Marital and Family Status for Lawyers
Gendered Income Gaps
Mentoring and Job Satisfaction
The Gendered Nature of Sanctions Against Lawyers
Women Judges
Looking for Gender Differences in Judges’ Decision-Making
Women Law Professors
Summary
PART V • Conclusions
Chapter 14 • Effecting Change
Improving Theoretical Approaches
Transformative Critical Feminist Criminology
Combining Feminist-Friendly Theories in the Same Study
Improving Research Methods
Two Strategies Cutting Across Offending, Victimization, and CLS Workers
Community-Coordinated Responses (CCRs) and Restorative Justice (RJ) Models
Trauma-Informed Care (TIC)
Changing the Risks for and Responses to Girls and Women’s Offending
Changing Responses to Gender-Based Abuse (GBA)
Responding to Sexual Abuse
Responding to Intimate Partner Abuse (IPA)
Resistance and Fighting Back
Changes for Women Working in the Criminal Legal System (CLS)
Summary
References
Index