The Human Body in Health and Illness

Front Cover
IFC
The Human Body in Health and Illness
Copyright
Dedication
Acknowledgments
TO THE INSTRUCTOR
TEXTBOOK STRENGTHS
CLASSROOM RESOURCES
STUDY GUIDE
EVOLVE INSTRUCTOR LEARNING RESOURCES
TEACH Instructor Resource on Evolve
TO THE STUDENT
TEXTBOOK FEATURES
KEY TERMS
OBJECTIVES
ILLUSTRATIONS
?DO YOU KNOW
?RAMP IT UP!
?RE-THINK
?AS YOU AGE
?SUM IT UP!
?MOVE IT
?GO FIGURE
MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY AND DISORDERS TABLES
END-OF-CHAPTER FEATURES
Summary Outline
Review Your Knowledge
ANSWERS TO REVIEW YOUR KNOWLEDGE AND GO FIGURE QUESTIONS
GLOSSARY
STUDY GUIDE
Contents
1 - Introduction to the Human Body
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY: WHAT THEY ARE
WHAT’S IT MEAN?
WHY DO I NEED TO KNOW THIS?
THE BODY’S LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
MAJOR ORGAN SYSTEMS
HOMEOSTASIS: STAYING THE SAME
ANATOMICAL POSITION
RELATIVE POSITIONS
PLANES OF THE BODY
REGIONAL TERMS
CAVITIES OF THE BODY
DORSAL CAVITY
VENTRAL CAVITY
THORACIC CAVITY
ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY
Division into Regions
Other Cavities
2 - Basic Chemistry
MATTER, ELEMENTS, AND ATOMS
MATTER
ELEMENTS
ATOMS
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
OTHER CHARACTERISTICS OF ATOMS
ELECTRON SHELLS
CHEMICAL BONDS
IONIC BONDS
COVALENT BONDS
HYDROGEN BONDS
POLARITY
IONS
CATIONS, ANIONS, AND ELECTROLYTES
ION FORMATION
IONIZATION
MOLECULES AND COMPOUNDS
MOLECULES
COMPOUNDS
SOME IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS AND MOLECULES
WATER
OXYGEN
CARBON DIOXIDE
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
ACIDS AND BASES
ACIDS
BASES
NEUTRALIZATION OF ACIDS AND BASES
MEASUREMENT: THE PH SCALE
READING THE PH SCALE
PH OF BODY FLUIDS
ENERGY
FORMS OF ENERGY
CONVERSION OF ENERGY
ENERGY TRANSFER: THE ROLE OF ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE
MIXTURES
SOLUTIONS
SUSPENSIONS
PRECIPITATES
3 - Cells
TYPICAL CELL
CELL MEMBRANE
INSIDE THE CELL
NUCLEUS
CYTOPLASM
Cytoplasmic Gel
CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
Mitochondria
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus
Lysosomes
Cytoskeleton
Centrioles
ON THE CELL MEMBRANE
MICROVILLI
CILIA
FLAGELLA
PASSIVE TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
DIFFUSION
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
OSMOSIS
TONICITY
Isotonic Solution
Hypotonic Solution
Hypertonic Solutions
FILTRATION
ACTIVE TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
ACTIVE TRANSPORT PUMPS
ENDOCYTOSIS
EXOCYTOSIS
CELL DIVISION
CELL CYCLE
INTERPHASE
MITOSIS
CELL DIFFERENTIATION
STEM CELLS
ORDER, DISORDER, AND DEATH
4 - Cell Metabolism
METABOLISM
CARBOHYDRATES
MONOSACCHARIDES
DISACCHARIDES
POLYSACCHARIDES
USES OF GLUCOSE
THE BREAKDOWN OF GLUCOSE
THE MAKING OF GLUCOSE
LIPIDS (FATS)
USES OF LIPIDS
MAKING FAT
PROTEINS
AMINO ACIDS
USES OF PROTEINS
BREAKDOWN OF PROTEIN AND THE PROBLEM WITH AMMONIA
Formation of Urea
Worrying about ammonia. Why does the liver “worry” about ammonia? Under normal conditions, the liver extracts ammonia (NH3) from...
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS AND DNA
DNA STRUCTURE
THE GENETIC CODE
Reading the Code
Copying the Code: mRNA
mRNA as Copycat
STEPS IN PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
5 - Microbiology Basics
WHAT IS DISEASE?
TYPES OF PATHOGENS
Microorganisms (Microbes)
OTHER (MULTICELLULAR) DISEASE-CAUSING ORGANISMS
THE SPREAD OF INFECTION
PORTALS OF ENTRY AND EXIT
HOW PATHOGENS SPREAD
PERSON-TO-PERSON CONTACT
ENVIRONMENT-TO-PERSON CONTACT
“TINY ANIMAL”-TO-PERSON CONTACT
FIVE GERM-LADEN STORIES
DR. SEMMELWEIS SCREAMS, “WASH THOSE MITTS!”
FLORA AND HER VAGINAL ITCH
RICK, NICK, AND THE SICK TICK
WHY TYPHOID MARY NEEDED TO LOSE HER GALLBLADDER
A POX NEWS ALERT!
6 -
Tissues and Membranes
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
WHERE IS IT FOUND?
WHAT DOES IT DO?
WHAT IS IT LIKE?
CLASSIFICATION
SIMPLE EPITHELIA
STRATIFIED EPITHELIA
GLANDULAR EPITHELIA
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
WHERE IS IT FOUND?
WHAT IS IT LIKE?
CONNECTIVE TISSUE: TISSUE CELLS AND MATRIX
TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
DENSE FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE
CARTILAGE
Types of Cartilage
BONE
BLOOD AND LYMPH
NERVOUS TISSUE
MUSCLE TISSUE
SKELETAL MUSCLE
SMOOTH MUSCLE
CARDIAC MUSCLE
TISSUE REPAIR
MEMBRANES
CLASSIFICATION OF MEMBRANES
EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES
CUTANEOUS MEMBRANE
MUCOUS MEMBRANES
SEROUS MEMBRANES
7
- Integumentary System and Body Temperature
FUNCTIONS OF THE INTEGUMENTARY
SYSTEM
STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN
LAYERS OF THE SKIN
EPIDERMIS
DERMIS
THE SKIN TELLS A STORY
SUBCUTANEOUS LAYER
SKIN COLOR
THE WHAT-IFS OF SKIN COLOR CHANGE
ACCESSORY STRUCTURES OF THE SKIN
HAIR
PARTS OF A HAIR
HAIR COLOR
CURLY, WAVY, OR STRAIGHT
STANDING ON END…AND THE GOOSE BUMP
HAIR LOSS
NAILS
THE NAILS TELL STORIES
THE WHAT-IFS OF NAILS
GLANDS
THE WHAT-IFS OF SEBACEOUS GLANDS
BODY TEMPERATURE
HEAT PRODUCTION
HEAT LOSS
REGULATION OF TEMPERATURE
MORE ABOUT SWEATING AND CHILLING
NEWBORNS AND BODY TEMPERATURE
TRANSFER OF HEAT: TERMINOLOGY
WHEN SKIN IS BURNED
8 - Skeletal System: About Growing Down With Osteoporosis?
ARRANGEMENT AND FUNCTIONS OF BONES
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM: WHAT IT DOES
MANY SIZES AND SHAPES OF BONES
BONE TISSUE AND BONE FORMATION
COMPACT AND SPONGY BONE
PARTS OF LONG BONES
OSSIFICATION
OSSIFICATION OF FLAT BONES
OSSIFICATION OF LONG BONES
GROWING BONES
GROWING TALLER
The What-Ifs of the Epiphyseal Disc
GROWING THICKER AND WIDER
BUMPS AND GROOVES
BROKEN BONES
DIVISIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
AXIAL SKELETON
SKULL
Cranium
The What-Ifs of the Ethmoid Bone
Facial Bones
Sinuses
Sutures: How the Skull Bones Are Held Together
The Infant Skull
The What-Ifs of the Fontanels and Sutures
BONES ASSOCIATED WITH THE SKULL
Hyoid Bone
Bones of the Middle Ear
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
The Back and Its Stack of Bones
VERTEBRAE
Characteristics of Vertebrae
Two Special Vertebrae: Atlas (C1) and Axis (C2)
Curvatures
THORACIC CAGE
Sternum
Ribs
Lines, Margins and Angles
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
SHOULDER GIRDLE
Clavicle
Scapula
UPPER LIMBS
Humerus
Radius
Ulna
Hand
Pelvic Girdle
Pelvis
Coxal Bone
LOWER LIMBS
Femur
Patella
Tibia and Fibula
Foot
JOINTS (ARTICULATIONS)
JOINT CLASSIFICATION
IMMOVABLE JOINTS
SLIGHTLY MOVABLE JOINTS
FREELY MOVABLE JOINTS
NAMING OF JOINTS
FREELY MOVABLE (SYNOVIAL) JOINTS: CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO MOVEMENT
HINGE JOINT
BALL-AND-SOCKET JOINT
PIVOT JOINT
SADDLE JOINT
GLIDING JOINT
CONDYLOID JOINT
CLINICALLY “BIG” SYNOVIAL JOINTS
KNEE
SHOULDER
ELBOW
HIP
Types of Joint Movements
9 -
Muscular System
TYPES AND FUNCTIONS OF MUSCLES
SKELETAL MUSCLE
SMOOTH MUSCLE
CARDIAC MUSCLE
STRUCTURE OF THE WHOLE MUSCLE
MUSCLE
LAYERS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
MUSCLE ATTACHMENTS
MYOFIBRILS AND SARCOMERES: STRUCTURE
FUNCTION: HOW MUSCLES CONTRACT
SLIDING FILAMENT MECHANISM
THE ROLE OF CALCIUM AND ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE
SKELETAL MUSCLES AND NERVES
SOMATIC MOTOR NEURON
THE MOTOR UNIT
THE NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION
THE STIMULATED MUSCLE MEMBRANE
DISORDERS OF THE NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION
Myasthenia Gravis
Neuromuscular Blockade Caused by Curare
Effects of Neurotoxins on Muscle Function
MUSCLE RESPONSES
ENERGY SOURCE FOR MUSCLE CONTRACTION
MUSCLE FATIGUE
MUSCLE TERMS
ORIGIN AND INSERTION
PRIME MOVER, SYNERGIST, AND ANTAGONIST
THE WHAT-IFS OF MUSCLE OVERUSE AND UNDERUSE
HOW SKELETAL MUSCLES ARE NAMED
SIZE
SHAPE
ORIENTATION OF FIBERS
LOCATION
NUMBER OF ORIGINS
ORIGIN AND INSERTION
MUSCLE ACTION
MUSCLES FROM HEAD TO TOE
MUSCLES OF THE HEAD
FACIAL MUSCLES
CHEWING MUSCLES
MUSCLES OF THE NECK
STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID
TRAPEZIUS
MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK
MUSCLES INVOLVED IN BREATHING
MUSCLES THAT FORM THE ABDOMINAL WALL
MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
MUSCLES THAT FORM THE PELVIC FLOOR
MUSCLES OF THE SHOULDER (PECTORAL) GIRDLE AND ARM
MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE FOREARM
MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE WRIST, HAND, AND FINGERS
THE CARPAL TUNNEL
MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE THIGH, LEG, AND FOOT
MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE FEMUR (THIGH BONE)
MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE LEG
MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE FOOT
10 - Nervous System: Nervous Tissue and Brain
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM: STRUCTURE
AND FUNCTION
DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
SENSORY FUNCTION
INTEGRATIVE FUNCTION
MOTOR FUNCTION
NEUROGLIA
NEURON
?PARTS OF A NEURON
Three Parts
The Axon: A Special Structure
WHITE MATTER VERSUS GRAY MATTER
THE NEURON CARRYING INFORMATION
THE NERVE IMPULSE: WHAT IT IS
THE NERVE IMPULSE: WHAT CAUSES IT
RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
DEPOLARIZATION
REPOLARIZATION
THE NERVE IMPULSE: WHAT CAUSES IT TO MOVE
THE NERVE IMPULSE: WHAT CAUSES IT TO MOVE QUICKLY
SYNAPSE ACROSS NEURONS
PARTS OF A SYNAPSE
EVENTS AT THE SYNAPSE
BRAIN: PARTS AND FUNCTION
CEREBRUM
GRAY ON THE OUTSIDE, WHITE ON THE INSIDE
MARKINGS OF THE CEREBRUM
LOBES OF THE CEREBRUM
Frontal Lobe
Parietal Lobe
Temporal Lobe
Occipital Lobe
FUNCTIONS INVOLVING MANY CEREBRAL LOBES
Speech Area
ASSOCIATION AREAS
PATCHES OF GRAY
DIENCEPHALON
BRAIN STEM
MIDBRAIN
PONS
MEDULLA OBLONGATA
Vomiting Center
CEREBELLUM
STRUCTURES ACROSS DIVISIONS OF THE BRAIN
LIMBIC SYSTEM: THE EMOTIONAL BRAIN
RETICULAR FORMATION
Reticular Activating System: Wakefulness, Sleep, and Coma
Sleep
Dreaming
MEMORY AREAS
BONE: FIRST LAYER OF PROTECTION
MENINGES: SECOND LAYER OF PROTECTION
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID: THIRD LAYER OF PROTECTION
BLOOD–BRAIN BARRIER: FOURTH LAYER OF PROTECTION
11 - Nervous System: Spinal Cord and Peripheral Nerves
WHAT THE SPINAL CORD IS
LOCATION AND SIZE
GRAY ON THE INSIDE, WHITE ON THE OUTSIDE
GRAY MATTER
WHITE MATTER
WHAT THE SPINAL CORD DOES
DECUSSATION
REFLEXES
WHAT REFLEXES ARE
THE REFLEX ARC
MANY, MANY REFLEXES
OUCH! THE WITHDRAWAL REFLEX
Organ Reflexes
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
NERVES
CLASSIFYING THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Cranial Nerves
Spinal Nerves
Names and Numbers of Spinal Nerves
Spinal Nerve Plexuses
What a Dermatome Is
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
12 - Autonomic Nervous System
AUTONOMIC (VISCERAL) REFLEXES
WHAT THEY DO
PATHWAY
ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION OF THE
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
DIVISION OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM: FIGHT OR FLIGHT
PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM: FEED AND BREED
AUTONOMIC TERMINOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY
AUTONOMIC TONE AND VASOMOTOR TONE
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM NEURONS
NUMBERS AND GANGLIA
NEURONS OF THE SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
NEURONS OF THE PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
RUNNING WITH CRANIAL NERVES
Oculomotor Nerve (CN III)
Facial Nerve (CN Vll)
Glossopharyngeal Nerve (CN lX)
Vagus Nerve (CN X)
NAMING FIBERS AND NEUROTRANSMITTERS
NEUROTRANSMITTERS: TERMINATION OF ACTIVITY
RECEPTORS OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
CHOLINERGIC RECEPTORS
ADRENERGIC RECEPTORS
AUTONOMIC TERMINOLOGY: “DOING” AUTONOMIC PHARMACOLOGY
13 -
Sensory System
RECEPTORS AND SENSATION
CELLS THAT DETECT STIMULI
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
EXPERIENCING A SENSATION
FOUR COMPONENTS
TWO CHARACTERISTICS OF SENSATION
THE GENERAL SENSES
PAIN
TOUCH AND PRESSURE
TEMPERATURE
PROPRIOCEPTION
THE SPECIAL SENSES
SENSE OF SMELL: THE NOSE
WHAT A SMELL CAN TELL
SENSE OF TASTE: THE TONGUE
SOME TASTEFUL COMMENTS
SENSE OF SIGHT: THE EYE
VISUAL ACCESSORY ORGANS
Eyebrows
Eyelids
THE WHAT-IFS OF EYELID MALFUNCTION
Eyelashes
Conjunctiva
Lacrimal Apparatus
Extrinsic Eye Muscles
THE EYEBALL
Layers of the Eyeball
Cavities and Fluids
MUSCLES OF THE EYE
Extrinsic Eye Muscles
Intrinsic Eye Muscles
PATHWAY OF LIGHT
REFRACTION AND ACCOMMODATION
STIMULATION OF THE PHOTORECEPTORS
Night Vision
Color Vision
INFORMING THE BRAIN: THE VISUAL PATHWAY
THE WHAT-IFS OF VISION LOSS
SENSE OF HEARING: THE EAR
STRUCTURE OF THE EAR
External Ear
Middle Ear
Inner Ear
HEARING HAPPENS WHEN…
THE WHAT-IFS OF HEARING LOSS
SENSE OF BALANCE: THE EAR
STATIC EQUILIBRIUM
DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
14 - Endocrine System
ENDOCRINE GLANDS
CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES
TARGETS
HORMONE RECEPTORS
CONTROL OF HORMONE SECRETION
FEEDBACK LOOPS
BIORHYTHMS
CONTROL BY THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
PITUITARY GLAND AND THE HYPOTHALAMUS
ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
Growth Hormone
The What-Ifs of GH excess and deficiency
PROLACTIN
TROPIC HORMONES
POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE
OXYTOCIN
THYROID GLAND
THYROID FOLLICLE
WHAT THYROID HORMONES (T3 AND T4) DO
THE WHAT-IFS OF THYROID HORMONE IMBALANCE
REGULATION OF SECRETION
THE NEED FOR IODINE
SYNTHESIS OF THYROID HORMONE
IODINE DEFICIENCY
CALCITONIN
PARATHYROID GLANDS
PARATHYROID HORMONE DEFICIENCY AND HYPOCALCEMIC TETANY
ADRENAL GLANDS
ADRENAL MEDULLA
ADRENAL CORTEX
Control of Cortisol Secretion
MINERALOCORTICOIDS
SEX HORMONES
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK…AGAIN
PANCREAS
INSULIN
SECRETION AND EFFECTS
THE WHAT-IFS OF INSULIN DEFICIENCY
GLUCAGON
GONADS
THYMUS GLAND
PINEAL GLAND
OTHER HORMONES
ORGAN-SPECIFIC HORMONES
PROSTAGLANDINS
ADIPOSE TISSUE HORMONES
THE WHAT-IFS OF EXCESS ABDOMINAL FAT
15 - Blood
WHAT BLOOD DOES
COMPOSITION OF BLOOD
CHARACTERISTICS
BLOOD HAS TWO PARTS
ORIGIN OF BLOOD CELLS
HEMOPOIESIS AND RED BONE MARROW
BONE MARROW WOES: TOO LITTLE, TOO MUCH
BONE MARROW DEPRESSION
BONE MARROW OVERACTIVITY
BLOOD CELLS
RED BLOOD CELLS
SHAPE AND CONTENTS
HEMOGLOBIN
WHY BLOOD CHANGES ITS COLOR
WHAT IS ESSENTIAL FOR HEMOGLOBIN PRODUCTION?
REGULATION OF RED BLOOD CELL PRODUCTION
REMOVAL AND BREAKDOWN OF RED BLOOD CELLS
RECYCLE!
WHITE BLOOD CELLS
TYPES OF WHITE BLOOD CELLS
GRANULOCYTES
AGRANULOCYTES
GOOD NEWS, BAD NEWS
PLATELETS
BLOOD COUNTS
DIFFERENTIAL COUNT
BLOOD VESSEL SPASM
FORMATION OF A PLATELET PLUG
BLOOD COAGULATION
FORMATION OF THE BLOOD CLOT
CLOT BUSTING: FIBRINOLYSIS
PREVENTION OF EXCESSIVE CLOT FORMATION
Natural Mechanisms
Use of Medications That Prevent Excessive Clot Formations
BLOOD TYPES
ANTIGENS AND BLOOD TYPES
ANTIBODIES AND BLOOD TYPE
ANTIGEN–ANTIBODY INTERACTION
COMPATIBILITY AND INCOMPATIBILITY OF BLOOD TYPES
RH CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
16 - Anatomy of the Heart
FUNCTION, LOCATION, AND SIZE OF THE HEART
LAYERS AND COVERING OF THE HEART
ENDOCARDIUM
MYOCARDIUM
EPICARDIUM
PERICARDIUM
The What-Ifs of the Pericardial Membranes
RIGHT ATRIUM
RIGHT VENTRICLE
LEFT ATRIUM
LEFT VENTRICLE
GREAT VESSELS OF THE HEART
HEART VALVES
ATRIOVENTRICULAR VALVES
SEMILUNAR VALVES
PULMONIC VALVE
AORTIC VALVE
The What-Ifs of Malfunctioning Valves?
HEART SOUNDS
BLOOD SUPPLY TO THE MYOCARDIUM
The What-Ifs of Poor Coronary Artery Blood Flow
CARDIAC ENZYMES AND LEAKY CELLS
CARDIAC CONDUCTION SYSTEM
PARTS OF THE CARDIAC CONDUCTION SYSTEM
SINOATRIAL NODE
ATRIAL CONDUCTING FIBERS
ATRIOVENTRICULAR NODE
HIS-PURKINJE SYSTEM
AUTOMATICITY AND RHYTHMICITY
NORMAL, SLOW, AND SLOWER
The What-Ifs of Electrical Malfunction
ELECTROCARDIOGRAM
17 - Function of the Heart
AUTONOMIC CONTROL OF THE HEART
WHY THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM?
AUTONOMIC WIRING
AUTONOMIC FIRING
Sympathetic Stimulation
Parasympathetic (Vagus Nerve) Stimulation
CARDIAC OUTPUT AND VENOUS RETURN
Heart Rate
Stroke Volume
How to Change Stroke Volume
Starling’s law of the heart. The relationship of myocardial stretch to myocardial contractile force is referred to as Starling’s...
Inotropic effect. A second way to increase stroke volume is by strengthening the force of myocardial contraction without stretch...
CHANGING CARDIAC OUTPUT
THE COORDINATED AND ADAPTABLE PUMP
HEART TALK
HEART TALK: CLINICAL TERMS
END-DIASTOLIC VOLUME
PRELOAD
EJECTION FRACTION
AFTERLOAD
INOTROPIC EFFECT
CHRONOTROPIC EFFECT
DROMOTROPIC EFFECT
HEART TALK: RECEPTOR LANGUAGE
BETA1-ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR ACTIVATION
BETA1-ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKADE
MUSCARINIC (CHOLINERGIC) RECEPTOR ACTIVATION
MUSCARINIC (CHOLINERGIC) RECEPTOR BLOCKADE
LEFT HEART FAILURE
BACKWARD FAILURE
FORWARD FAILURE
RIGHT HEART FAILURE
18 - Anatomy of the Blood Vessels and Special Circulations
CIRCLES, CIRCUITS, AND CIRCULATIONS
BLOOD VESSELS
NAMING THE BLOOD VESSELS
ARTERIES
CAPILLARIES
VEINS
BLOOD VESSEL WALLS: THE LAYERED LOOK
BLOOD VESSELS: WHAT THEY DO
ARTERIES
ARTERIOLES
CAPILLARIES
VEINS AND VENULES
AORTA
BRANCHES OF THE AORTA
BRANCHES OF THE ASCENDING AORTA
BRANCHES OF THE AORTIC ARCH
BRANCHES OF THE DESCENDING AORTA (THORACIC AORTA)
BRANCHES OF THE DESCENDING AORTA (ABDOMINAL AORTA)
VENAE CAVAE
VEINS THAT EMPTY INTO THE SUPERIOR VENA CAVA
VEINS THAT EMPTY INTO THE INFERIOR VENA CAVA
SPECIAL CIRCULATIONS
BLOOD SUPPLY TO THE HEAD AND BRAIN
ARTERIES OF THE HEAD AND NECK
VENOUS DRAINAGE OF THE HEAD AND BRAIN
BLOOD SUPPLY TO THE LIVER AND THE HEPATIC PORTAL CIRCULATION
HEPATIC BLOOD VESSELS
FETAL CIRCULATION
PULSE
WHAT IS A PULSE?
WHAT CAN YOU LEARN ABOUT A PATIENT BY FEELING THE PULSE?
19 - Functions of the Blood Vessels
BLOOD VESSELS DELIVER
BLOOD VESSELS REGULATE BLOOD PRESSURE
BLOOD PRESSURE: NORMAL AND ABNORMAL
BLOOD PRESSURE IN DIFFERENT BLOOD VESSELS
WHAT DETERMINES BLOOD PRESSURE?
HEART AND BLOOD PRESSURE
BLOOD VESSELS AND BLOOD PRESSURE
HOW BLOOD PRESSURE STAYS WITHIN NORMAL LIMITS
RAPIDLY ACTING MECHANISMS
The What-Ifs of Blood Pressure Changes and the Baroreceptor Responses
SLOWER-ACTING MECHANISMS AND LONG-TERM REGULATION OF BLOOD PRESSURE
WHAT IS AN EXCHANGE VESSEL?
WHY CAPILLARIES ARE GOOD EXCHANGE VESSELS
THIN CAPILLARY WALLS
MILLIONS OF CAPILLARIES
SLOW VELOCITY OF BLOOD FLOW
CAPILLARY FORCES: EXCHANGE
EXCHANGE INVOLVING DIFFUSION
EXCHANGE INVOLVING FILTRATION-OSMOSIS
The What-Ifs of Impaired Fluid Exchange: The Mechanisms of Edema Formation
BLOOD VESSELS DISTRIBUTE BLOOD
20 - Lymphatic System
LYMPH AND LYMPHATIC CIRCULATION
LYMPH: WHAT IT IS AND WHERE IT COMES FROM
LYMPHATIC VESSELS
WHAT CAUSES LYMPH TO MOVE?
LYMPHATIC TISSUE
LYMPHATIC ORGANS
LYMPH NODES
THYMUS GLAND
SPLEEN
LYMPHATIC NODULES
TONSILS
MUCOSA-ASSOCIATED LYMPHATIC TISSUE
PEYER PATCHES
APPENDIX
21 - Immune System
CLASSIFICATION OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
NONSPECIFIC IMMUNITY
FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE
SECOND LINE OF DEFENSE
Phagocytosis
Asking directions: How phagocytes “find” the site of infection. As they travel through the blood to the site of infection, the n...
Inflammation
Fever
Protective Proteins
Natural Killer Cells
SPECIFIC IMMUNITY: THIRD LINE OF DEFENSE
ANTIGENS
SELF AND NONSELF: IS THAT ME?
LYMPHOCYTES
Why the Names “T” and “B” Cells?
T-Cell Activation and Cell-Mediated Immunity
Another name for the helper T cell. The helper T cell is also called the CD4+ T cell (because of a surface protein called CD4). ...
ANTIBODIES
What Antibodies Are
What Antibodies Do
Remember Me? Primary and Secondary Responses
TYPES OF IMMUNITY
GENETIC IMMUNITY
ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
NATURALLY ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
ARTIFICIALLY ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
THE WHAT-IFS OF ALTERED IMMUNE RESPONSES
22 - Respiratory System
STRUCTURE: ORGANS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
UPPER AND LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACTS
NOSE AND NASAL CAVITIES
THE WHAT-IFS OF THE NOSE
PHARYNX
LARYNX
WHERE AND WHAT IS YOUR VOICE BOX?
VOCAL CORDS
TRUE OR FALSE
DOWN THE WRONG WAY
TRACHEA
WHERE IT SITS AND WHERE IT SPLITS
KEEPING IT OPEN
BRONCHIAL TREE: BRONCHI, BRONCHIOLES, AND ALVEOLI
BRONCHI
BRONCHIOLES
ALVEOLI
LUNGS
RIGHT AND LEFT
PLEURAL MEMBRANES
PLEURAE
INTRAPLEURAL SPACE
COLLAPSED AND EXPANDED LUNGS
WHY LUNGS COLLAPSE
ELASTIC RECOIL
SURFACE TENSION
WHY LUNGS EXPAND
SAYING IT ANOTHER WAY: COMPLIANCE
THE WHAT-IFS OF LUNG COMPLIANCE
RESPIRATORY FUNCTION
THREE STEPS IN RESPIRATION
STEP 1: VENTILATION, OR BREATHING
What It Is
Boyle’s Law: Pressure and Volume
Boyle’s Law and Ventilation
The Muscles of Respiration
Nerves That Supply the Respiratory Muscles
The What-Ifs of Impaired Respiratory Nerve-Muscle Function
STEP 2: EXCHANGE OF OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE
Why the Lungs Are Good Gas Exchangers
Partial Pressures and the Diffusion of Gases
What causes the respiratory gases to diffuse? Chapter 3describes how molecules diffuse from an area of higher concentration to a...
Partial pressures within the lungs. Fig. 22.10 illustrates the diffusion of the respiratory gases at two sites: the lungs and th...
Partial pressure at the cells. What happens to the gases at the tissues, or body cells? Two events occur. First, oxygen leaves t...
STEP 3: TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE
Oxygen Transport
Carbon Dioxide Transport
AMOUNTS OF AIR
LUNG VOLUMES
LUNG CAPACITIES
DEAD SPACE
CONTROL OF BREATHING
NEURAL CONTROL OF BREATHING
CHEMICAL CONTROL OF BREATHING
The What-Ifs of PCO2 Dysregulation
23 - Digestive System
OVERVIEW OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
LAYERS AND MEMBRANES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT
MUCOSA
SUBMUCOSA
MUSCLE LAYER
SEROSA
INNERVATION OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT
STRUCTURES AND ORGANS
MOUTH
TEETH
TONGUE
SALIVARY GLANDS
THE WHAT-IFS OF SALIVA
OTHER STRUCTURES WITHIN THE MOUTH
PHARYNX
ESOPHAGUS
STOMACH
WHAT IT DOES
REGIONS OF THE STOMACH
MUSCLES OF THE STOMACH
GLANDS OF THE STOMACH
VOMITING
SMALL INTESTINE
LOCATION AND PARTS
SEGMENTS OF THE SMALL INTESTINE
THE WALL OF THE SMALL INTESTINE AND ABSORPTION
Peristalsis and Absorption in the Small Intestine
LARGE INTESTINE
SEGMENTS OF THE LARGE INTESTINE
FUNCTIONS OF THE LARGE INTESTINE
Peristalsis and Absorption
Inside the gut: microbiota. Inside the gut and throughout the much-maligned waste there is a lot going on. Your gut microbiota (...
Intestinal Gas
ACCESSORY DIGESTIVE ORGANS
LIVER
WHAT THE LIVER DOES
BLOOD SUPPLY TO THE LIVER
Blood Supply and the Hepatic Portal System
LIVER LOBULES
THE WHAT-IFS OF IMPAIRED HEPATIC FUNCTION
BILE
BILIARY TREE
GALLBLADDER
THE WHAT-IFS OF IMPAIRED BILE FLOW
PANCREAS
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
CARBOHYDRATES AND CARBOHYDRATE-SPLITTING ENZYMES
PROTEINS AND PROTEIN-SPLITTING ENZYMES
FATS, BILE, AND FAT-SPLITTING ENZYMES
NUTRITION: CONCEPTS TO KNOW
CARBOHYDRATES
PROTEINS
FATS (LIPIDS)
VITAMINS
THE WHAT-IFS OF VITAMIN DEFICIENCIES AND OVERDOSING
MINERALS
THE WHAT-IFS OF MINERAL DEFICIENCIES
HEALTH AND A BALANCED DIET
A BALANCED DIET
POORLY BALANCED DIET AND DISEASE
APPETITE CONTROL AND THE COUCH POTATO
24 - Urinary System
EXCRETION
ORGANS OF EXCRETION
URINARY SYSTEM ORGANS
URINARY SYSTEM TERMS
KIDNEYS
LOCATION
STRUCTURE
BLOOD SUPPLY
NERVE SUPPLY
FUNCTIONS OF THE KIDNEYS
URINE MAKING: THE NEPHRON UNIT
STRUCTURES
RENAL TUBULES
RENAL BLOOD VESSELS (VASCULAR STRUCTURES)
URINE FORMATION
GLOMERULAR FILTRATION
Why Filtration Occurs
What Substances Are Filtered
The What-Ifs of Impaired Glomerular Filtration Rate
TUBULAR REABSORPTION
TUBULAR SECRETION
ALDOSTERONE
ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE
THE WHAT-IFS OF IMPAIRED SECRETION OF ALDOSTERONE AND ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE
NATRIURETIC PEPTIDES
PARATHYROID HORMONE AND CALCITONIN
COMPOSITION OF URINE
UREMIA AND DIALYSIS
YOUR PLUMBING
URETERS
URINARY BLADDER
URINATION
THE WHAT-IFS OF BLADDER FUNCTION
URETHRA
AN AUTONOMIC MOMENT
25 - Water, Electrolyte, and Acid–Base Balance
BODY FLUIDS: DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION
FLUID COMPARTMENTS
COMPOSITION OF BODY FLUIDS
WATER BALANCE
WATER INTAKE
WATER OUTPUT
THE WHAT-IFS OF WATER IMBALANCE
WHY DOES FLUID SHIFT?
FLUID SPACING—TERMINOLOGY
DAILY WEIGHTS AND FLUID BALANCE
ELECTROLYTE BALANCE
QUICK REFERENCE: ELECTROLYTES
MOST IMPORTANT IONS
SODIUM (NA+)
The What-Ifs of Sodium Imbalance
POTASSIUM (K+)
The What-Ifs of K+ Imbalance
CALCIUM (CA2+)
MAGNESIUM (MG2+)
CHLORIDE (CL−)
BICARBONATE (HCO3−)
OTHER IONS
ACID–BASE BALANCE
QUICK REFERENCE: ACIDS AND BASES
WHERE THE ACID COMES FROM
HOW THE BODY REGULATES PH
BUFFERS
LUNGS
RESPIRATORY ACTIVITY AS THE CAUSE OF CHANGES IN PH
RESPIRATORY ACTIVITY AS THE CORRECTION FOR CHANGES IN PH
KIDNEYS
ACIDOSIS
ALKALOSIS
26 - Reproductive Systems
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
TESTES
LOCATION, LOCATION, LOCATION
LOBULES
SPERM CELLS
Spermatogenesis
GENITAL DUCTS
EPIDIDYMIS
VAS DEFERENS AND EJACULATORY DUCTS
URETHRA
ACCESSORY GLANDS
SEMINAL VESICLES
PROSTATE GLAND
BULBOURETHRAL GLANDS
SEMEN
EXTERNAL GENITALS
MALE SEXUAL RESPONSE: ERECTION, EMISSION, EJACULATION, AND ORGASM
MALE SEX HORMONES
EFFECTS OF TESTOSTERONE
HORMONAL CONTROL OF MALE REPRODUCTION
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
OVARIES
EGG DEVELOPMENT: THE OVARIAN FOLLICLE
OVULATION
OVARIAN HORMONES
Estrogen
Progesterone
GENITAL TRACT
FALLOPIAN TUBES
The What-Ifs of Tube Trouble
UTERUS
VAGINA
EXTERNAL GENITALS
FEMALE SEXUAL RESPONSE
HORMONAL CONTROL OF THE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLES
TWO REPRODUCTIVE CYCLES
OVARIAN CYCLE
Follicular Phase
Luteal Phase
UTERINE CYCLE
Menstrual Phase
Proliferative Phase
Secretory Phase
IMPLANTATION: KEEPING THE CORPUS LUTEUM ALIVE
MENARCHE, MENSES, AND MENOPAUSE
THE FEMALE BREAST AND LACTATION
STRUCTURE OF A BREAST: THE MAMMARY GLANDS
HORMONES OF LACTATION… GOT MILK?
METHODS OF BIRTH CONTROL
27 - Human Development and Heredity
FERTILIZATION
WHEN FERTILIZATION OCCURS
WHERE FERTILIZATION OCCURS
HOW FERTILIZATION OCCURS
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
EARLY EMBRYONIC PERIOD
FROM ZYGOTE TO BLASTOCYST… OR FROM ZYGOTE TO EGGPLANT
SEEING DOUBLE: TWINS
EMBRYONIC PERIOD
EXTRAEMBRYONIC MEMBRANES
PLACENTA
Formation of the Placenta
Functions of the Placenta
HOOK UP: THE UMBILICAL CORD
ORGANOGENESIS
BE CAREFUL: TERATOGENS
The What-Ifs of Commonly Encountered Teratogens
FETAL PERIOD
BIRTH
IMMEDIATE ADJUSTMENTS
DEVELOPMENT AS A LIFELONG PROCESS
HEREDITY
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID, GENES, AND CHROMOSOMES
GENETIC ART: THE KARYOTYPE
DOMINANT, RECESSIVE, AND CODOMINANT GENES
TOO MANY OR TOO FEW CHROMOSOMES
GENETIC EXPRESSION
GENETIC MUTATIONS
XS AND YS
SEX DETERMINATION: A MALE THING
SEX-LINKED TRAITS
CONGENITAL AND HEREDITARY DISEASE
ANSWERS TO REVIEW YOUR KNOWLEDGE
MATCHING: DIRECTIONS OF THE BODY
MATCHING: REGIONAL TERMS
MULTIPLE CHOICE
GO FIGURE
CHAPTER 2: BASIC CHEMISTRY
MATCHING: ATOMS AND ELEMENTS
MATCHING: STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
MATCHING: IONS AND ELECTROLYTES
MATCHING: ACIDS AND BASES
MULTIPLE CHOICE
GO FIGURE
CHAPTER 3: CELLS
MATCHING: CELL STRUCTURE
MATCHING: TRANSPORT AND TONICITY
MULTIPLE CHOICE
GO FIGURE
CHAPTER 4: CELL METABOLISM
MATCHING: CARBOHYDRATES, PROTEINS, AND FATS
MATCHING: BIOCHEMISTRY TERMS
MATCHING: GENETIC CODE AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
MULTIPLE CHOICE
GO FIGURE
CHAPTER 5: MICROBIOLOGY BASICS
MATCHING: MICROORGANISMS AND OTHER PATHOGENS
MULTIPLE CHOICE
GO FIGURE
CHAPTER 6: TISSUES AND MEMBRANES
MATCHING: TISSUES
MATCHING: MEMBRANES
MULTIPLE CHOICE
GO FIGURE
CHAPTER 7: INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM AND BODY TEMPERATURE
MATCHING: SKIN
MATCHING: GLANDS
MATCHING: COLORS
MULTIPLE CHOICE
GO FIGURE
GO FIGURE
CHAPTER 8: SKELETAL SYSTEM
MATCHING: LONG BONE
MATCHING: NAMES OF BONES
MATCHING: JOINTS AND JOINT MOVEMENT
MULTIPLE CHOICE
GO FIGURE
CHAPTER 9: MUSCULAR SYSTEM
MATCHING: MUSCLE TERMS
MATCHING: NAMES OF MUSCLES
MULTIPLE CHOICE
GO FIGURE
CHAPTER 10: NERVOUS SYSTEM: NERVOUS TISSUE AND BRAIN
MATCHING: NERVE CELLS
MATCHING: BRAIN
MULTIPLE CHOICE
GO FIGURE
CHAPTER 11: NERVOUS SYSTEM: SPINAL CORD AND PERIPHERAL NERVES
MATCHING: REFLEXES
MATCHING: NERVES
MULTIPLE CHOICE
MULTIPLE CHOICE
GO FIGURE
CHAPTER 12: AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
MATCHING: SYMPATHETIC OR PARASYMPATHETIC
MATCHING: NOREPINEPHRINE OR ACETYLCHOLINE
MULTIPLE CHOICE
MULTIPLE CHOICE
GO FIGURE
CHAPTER 13: SENSORY SYSTEM
MATCHING: SENSES
MATCHING: STRUCTURES OF THE EYE
MATCHING: STRUCTURES OF THE EAR
MULTIPLE CHOICE
MULTIPLE CHOICE
GO FIGURE
CHAPTER 14: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
MATCHING: GLANDS
MATCHING: HORMONES
MULTIPLE CHOICE
GO FIGURE
CHAPTER 15: BLOOD
MATCHING: BLOOD CELLS
MATCHING: BLOOD CLOTS
MATCHING: BLOOD TYPES
MULTIPLE CHOICE
GO FIGURE
CHAPTER 16: ANATOMY OF THE HEART
MATCHING: STRUCTURES OF THE HEART
MATCHING: VALVES
MULTIPLE CHOICE
GO FIGURE
CHAPTER 17: FUNCTION OF THE HEART
MATCHING: CARDIAC FUNCTION TERMS
MATCHING: LOADS AND EFFECTS
MULTIPLE CHOICE
GO FIGURE
CHAPTER 18: ANATOMY OF THE BLOOD VESSELS AND SPECIAL CIRCULATIONS
MATCHING: BLOOD VESSELS: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
MATCHING: NAMES OF BLOOD VESSELS
MATCHING: FETAL CIRCULATION
MULTIPLE CHOICE
GO FIGURE
CHAPTER 19: FUNCTIONS OF THE BLOOD VESSELS
MATCHING: BLOOD PRESSURE TERMS
MATCHING: BLOOD PRESSURE READINGS
MATCHING: CHANGES IN BLOOD PRESSURE
MULTIPLE CHOICE
GO FIGURE
CHAPTER 20: LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
MATCHING: LYMPH TERMS
MULTIPLE CHOICE
GO FIGURE
CHAPTER 21: IMMUNE SYSTEM
MATCHING: NONSPECIFIC IMMUNITY
MATCHING: SPECIFIC IMMUNITY
MATCHING: ACTIVE AND PASSIVE IMMUNITY
MULTIPLE CHOICE
GO FIGURE
CHAPTER 22: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
MATCHING: STRUCTURES OF THE RESPIRATORY TRACT
MATCHING: THORACIC CAVITY AND VENTILATION
MULTIPLE CHOICE
GO FIGURE
CHAPTER 23: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
MATCHING: STRUCTURES: MAKING THE CONNECTIONS
MATCHING: ENZYMES, HORMONES, AND DIGESTIVE AIDS
MULTIPLE CHOICE
GO FIGURE
CHAPTER 24: URINARY SYSTEM
MATCHING: PLUMBING
MATCHING: NEPHRON UNIT
MATCHING: HORMONES AND ENZYMES
MULTIPLE CHOICE
GO FIGURE
GO FIGURE
CHAPTER 25: WATER, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID–BASE BALANCE
MATCHING: WATER COMPARTMENTS
MATCHING: IONS
MULTIPLE CHOICE
GO FIGURE
GO FIGURE
CHAPTER 26: REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
MATCHING: FEMALE STRUCTURES
MATCHING: MALE STRUCTURES
MATCHING: HORMONES
MULTIPLE CHOICE
GO FIGURE
GO FIGURE
CHAPTER 27: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND HEREDITY
MATCHING: FERTILIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT
MATCHING: HORMONES
MATCHING: HEREDITY
MULTIPLE CHOICE
GO FIGURE
GO FIGURE
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z