The anatomy and physiology of the basal ganglia and their relation to brain and behavior, disorders and therapies, and philosophy of mind and moral values.
The main task of the basal ganglia—a group of subcortical nuclei, located at the base of the brain—is to optimize and execute our automatic behavior. In this book, Hagai Bergman analyzes the anatomy and physiology of the basal ganglia, discussing their relation to brain and behavior, to disorders and therapies, and even to moral values. Drawing on his forty years of studying the basal ganglia, Bergman presents new information on physiology and computational models, Parkinson’s disease and other ganglia-related disorders, and such therapies as deep brain stimulation.
Focusing on studies of nonhuman primates and human basal ganglia and relying on system physiology and in vivo extra-cellular recording techniques, Bergman first describes the major brain structures that constitute the basal ganglia, the morphology of their cellular elements, their synaptic connectivity and their physiological function in health and disease. He discusses the computational physiology of the healthy basal ganglia, describing four generations of computational models, and then traces the computational physiology of basal ganglia–related disorders and their treatments, including Parkinson’s disease and its pharmacological and surgical therapies. Finally, Bergman considers the implications of these findings for such moral concerns as free will. Explaining this leap into domains rarely explored in neuroscientific accounts, Bergman writes that the longer he studies the basal ganglia, the more he is convinced that they are truly the base of both brain and mind.
Author(s): Hagai Bergman
Edition: 1
Publisher: The MIT Press
Year: 2021
Language: English
Pages: 332
Tags: physiology; basal ganglia; brain; behavior;
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
I. Introduction and Background
1. The Basal Ganglia: Why and Where?
Why Should We Study the Basal Ganglia?
Gross Anatomy of the Basal Ganglia
Basal Ganglia Volumes
“Tell Me Who Are Your Friends?”: The Cortex and Thalamus
A Cord of Three Motor Strands Is Not Quickly Broken: The Cerebellum
Emotion and Motion: The Papez Limbic Circuit
Form and Function
Chapter Summary
2. Cellular Anatomy and Biochemistry of the Basal Ganglia
The Cortex
The Striatum
The Subthalamic Nucleus
GPe, GPi, and SNr
The Thalamus
The Basal Ganglia in Numbers
Number of Neurons outside the Hard Core of the Basal Ganglia
The Other Half: The Glia
Chapter Summary
3. The Synaptic Connections of the Basal Ganglia Network
The Synaptic Map of the Feedforward Connectivity of the Basal Ganglia
Lateral Connectivity in the Basal Ganglia
Feedback and Reciprocal Connectivity in the Main Axis of the Basal Ganglia
Convergence/Divergence of Basal Ganglia Connectivity
Convergence, Divergence, Again and Again
Chapter Summary
4. Computational Modeling of Brain and Behavior
Top-Down versus Bottom-Up Approaches
Hierarchical Levels of Understanding of the Nervous System
Chapter Summary
5. Principles of Neurophysiological Data Acquisition
Electrodes, Frequency Domains, and Types of Neurophysiological Data
The Black Magic of Neurophysiology Recording
Spike Detection, Spike Sorting, and Isolation Quality
Electrical Stimulation of the Brain
Inactivation of Brain Activity
What Was Left Out?
Chapter Summary
6. Principles of Neurophysiological Analysis
Temporal and Frequency Domains and Neurophysiological Data Analysis
Time Domain Analysis of Rate and Pattern of Spontaneous Activity
Frequency Domain Analysis of Discharge Pattern
Pairwise Correlations Analysis of Synchronization of Spontaneous Activity
Effective Connectivity in the Brain and the Sensitivity of Cross-Correlation Analysis
Cross-Correlation Analysis of Spike Trains of Neighboring Neurons
Coherence: Frequency Domain Analysis of Neuronal Synchronization
Analysis of Evoked Activity
Advanced Analysis Topics
Chapter Summary
II. Computational Physiology of the Healthy Basal Ganglia
7. Physiology of the Basal Ganglia
Spontaneous Discharge Rate
Spontaneous Discharge Pattern
Synchronization of Spontaneous Discharge
Synchronization of GPe Pauses and Spiking Activity
Basal Ganglia–Evoked Activity: Polarity and Amplitude
Basal Ganglia–Evoked Activity: Temporal Structure
Synchronization of Basal Ganglia–Evoked Activity
Chapter Summary
8. Basal Ganglia Physiology: The Roads Less Traveled
The Basal Ganglia and the Sleep/Wake Cycle
Right/Left Brain and Basal Ganglia Asymmetry
Biological Sex and the Basal Ganglia
Age Effects in the Basal Ganglia
Evolution and Comparative Biology of the Basal Ganglia
Chapter Summary
9. Box-and-Arrow Rate Models of the Basal Ganglia
D1/D2 Direct/Indirect Pathways Box-and-Arrow Model of the Basal Ganglia
Computational Physiology of the D1/D2 Direct/Indirect Pathways Box-and-Arrow Model of the Basal Ganglia
The D1/D2 Saga
The Two Pallidal Segments: Friends or Foes?
Thalamo/Cortical versus Dopamine Drive of the Striatum and the Basal Ganglia Network
Anatomical Updates of the D1/D2 Direct/Indirect Pathways Box-and-Arrow Model of the Basal Ganglia
The Three-Layer Model of the Basal Ganglia
The Pitfalls of Box-and-Arrow Models of the Basal Ganglia
Focusing versus Scaling: Action Selection in the Basal Ganglia
Computational Physiology and Pitfalls of Action-Selection Models of the Basal Ganglia
Chapter Summary
10. Reinforcement-Learning Actor/Critic Models of the Basal Ganglia
Principles of Reinforcement Learning
Reinforcement Learning in Equations
Reinforcement Learning in the Basal Ganglia Networks
Encoding of Reward Prediction Error by Dopaminergic Neurons
Homogeneous Dopamine Innervation of the Striatum
Dopamine Modulates the Efficacy of the Corticostriatal Synapses
Who Is the Teacher of the Teacher?
Computational Physiology of the Reinforcement-Learning Actor/Critic Model of the Basal Ganglia
Pitfalls of the Reinforcement-Learning Actor/Critic Model of the Basal Ganglia
Chapter Summary
11. Multiple-Critics, Multiobjective Optimization Models of the Basal Ganglia
Multiobjective Optimization
The Cholinergic Critic
Basal Ganglia Critics Modulate Both Striatal Excitability and Afferent Synaptic Efficacy
Freestanding (Outside the Striatum) Neuromodulation in the Basal Ganglia
Computational Physiology of the Multiple-Critics, Multiobjective Optimization Model of the Basal Ganglia
Pitfalls of the Multiple-Critics, Multiobjective Optimization Model of the Basal Ganglia
Chapter Summary
12. The Basal Ganglia as One of Many State-to-Action Loops
Brain Networks and Kahneman’s Systems 1 and 2
Bottleneck Dimensionality Reduction in the Basal Ganglia
Linear and Nonlinear Neuronal Input-Output RELATIONSHIPS in the Basal Ganglia
Computational Physiology of the Basal Ganglia: The Current Status
Computational Physiology of the Basal Ganglia: Second-Order Questions
Chapter Summary
III. Computational Physiology of Basal Ganglia Disorders and Their Therapy
13. Parkinson’s Disease and Other Basal Ganglia–Related Human Disorders
The Pyramidal versus the Extrapyramidal Systems
Parkinson’s Disease
Other Basal Ganglia–Related Disorders
Why Are Basal Ganglia Disorders So Poorly Compensated by Other Brain Structures?
Chapter Summary
14. Animal Models of Parkinson’s Disease
The 6-OHDA Rodent Model of Parkinson’s Disease
The MPTP Model of Parkinson’s Disease
Animal Models Are Lies That Help Us to Reveal the Truth and to Reduce Human Suffering
Chapter Summary
15. Physiology of Parkinson’s Disease: Animal Models
Discharge Rate
Discharge Pattern and Synchronization
On Oscillations and Synchronization
Changes in the Spiking Activity of the Motor Cortex in MPTP-Treated Monkeys
Local Field Potentials and Their Correlation with Spiking Activity in the Basal Ganglia of MPTP-Treated Monkeys
Beta Oscillations in the MPTP Monkey Do Not Go to Sleep
Chapter Summary
16. Physiology of Parkinson’s Disease: Human
Theta and Beta Oscillations in the Basal Ganglia of Parkinson’s Patients
Subthalamic Beta Oscillations Are Synchronized
The Functional Roles of Beta and Theta Oscillations
LFP Studies
Chapter Summary
17. Pharmacotherapy of Parkinson’s Disease
Anticholinergic Treatment of Parkinson’s Disease
Dopamine Therapy for Parkinson’s Disease
Amantadine Therapy for Parkinson’s Disease
The Built-In Problems of Pharmacotherapy for Parkinson’s Disease Symptoms
Alpha-Synuclein Therapy for Parkinson’s Disease
Lifestyle Therapy for Parkinson’s Disease
Chapter Summary
18. Deep Brain Stimulation Therapy for Parkinson’s Disease
DBS Technology
DBS Clinical and Adverse Effects
Mechanism of DBS
Optimization of DBS Therapy for Parkinson’s Disease
Better DBS Navigation
“Asleep” DBS
What Is the Best Target in Space for DBS for Parkinson’s Disease?
Chapter Summary
19. Closing the Loop on Parkinson’s Disease and Basal Ganglia–Related Disorders
Closed-Loop DBS
Not All Betas Are Created Equal: On Bad and Good Beta Oscillations
A Basal Ganglia–Cortex Holistic View of Beta Oscillations
The Other Side of the Moon: Ketamine, Hyperkinetic States, and Gamma Oscillations
Dreams May Come True: Phase-Specific Closed-Loop DBS
Learning from the Basal Ganglia: Machine-Learning DBS
On Dreams and Delusions in the Basal Ganglia: Closed-Loop DBS for Schizophrenia
If Your Dreams Don’t Scare You, They Aren’t Big Enough
Chapter Summary
IV. From the Basal Ganglia and Brain to the Mind
20. The Basal Ganglia, Free Will, and Human Responsibility
State-to-Action Loops and Free Will
Escaping the Tyranny of Biological State-to-Action Loops
If You Don’t Know Where You’re Going, Then It Doesn’t Much Matter Which Way You Go
Notes
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Chapter 15
Chapter 16
Chapter 17
Chapter 18
Chapter 19
Chapter 20
References
Index
