The Handbook of World Englishes

The Handbook of World Englishes
Contents
List of Figures and Tables
List of Contributors
Preface to the Second Edition
Preface to the First Edition
Introduction: The World of World Englishes
Part I: The historical context
Part II: Variational contexts
Part III: Acculturation
Part IV: Crossing borders
Part V: Grammar wars and standards
Part VI: Ideology, identity, and constructs
Part VII: World Englishes and globalization
Part VIII: World Englishes and applied theory
Part IX: Outlook for the future
References
Part I: The Historical Context
First Diaspora
1 Beginnings
1 Beginnings
2 First Steps: Wales and Ireland
2.1 Wales
2.2 Ireland
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
FURTHER READING
2 English in Scotland
1 Introduction
2 Historical Development of the Scottish Varieties
2.1 Parallel development of cognate varieties
2.2 Earliest days
2.3 The impact of Old Norse
2.4 The influence of Norman French
2.5 The ascendance of Inglis
2.6 From Inglis to Scottis to Scots
2.7 Increasing Anglicization
2.8 Highland English and Gaelic
3 The Present‐Day Scottish‐English Linguistic Continuum
3.1 Scots
3.2 Scottish Standard English
3.3 Written and spoken varieties of Scottish English
4 Problems of Definition, Terminology, and Status
4.1 Problems of definition and terminology
4.2 Problems of status
5 Characteristics of Present‐Day Scottish English Varieties
5.1 Phonological characteristics
5.2 Grammatical differences
5.3 Distinctive lexis
6 Scottish English – Looking to the Future
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
Second Diaspora
3 English in the United States
1 Introduction: American English in the context of World Englishes
2 Settlement history and the dialectal diffusion of American English
3 Research history
3.1 Lexicography
3.2 Dialect geography
3.3 Sociolinguistics
4 American English and its varieties
4.1 Regional dialects
4.2 Social dialects
4.3 Ethnic varieties
4.4 Homogeneity and variability, identity and change
5 The growing impact of American English on other world Englishes
6 Conclusion
NOTES
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
4 English in Canada
1 Introduction
2 Research History
3 Settlement and Development Theories
4 Linguistic Autonomy
5 Linguistic homogeneity and Standard Canadian English
6 Regional Varieties
7 Social Varieties
8 Attitudes and Perception
9 Conclusion
NOTES
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
5 English in Australia and New Zealand
1 Introduction
2 Development
2.1 Australian settlement: 1788–1820
2.2 Australian expansion and New Zealand founding: 1820–1850
2.3 Gold rushes and new migration: 1850–1900
2.4 Independence: 1900–1960
2.5 National standard: 1960–present
3 Descriptions
3.1 Features distinguishing Australian and New Zealand Englishes
3.2 Sociolinguistic variation in modern NZE and AusE
3.3 Varieties of Australian English
3.4 Varieties of New Zealand English
4 Current changes
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
6 Caribbean Englishes
1 Introduction
2 Where Are Restructured Englishes of the Caribbean Spoken?
3 Different Scenarios for the Emergence of Englishes in the Atlantic Region
4 Basic Features of Restructured English in the Caribbean
5 Grammar
5.1 Copula
5.2 Past
5.3 Future
5.4 Progressive aspect
5.5 Pronouns
5.6 Possession
5.7 Infinitival marker
5.8 Pluralization
5.9 Negation
5.10 Serial Verbs
6 Lexicon
7 Word Formation
8 Phonology
8.1 Vowels
8.2 Consonants
9 Conclusion
REFERENCES
Third Diaspora
7 South Asian Englishes
1 Introduction
2 English in South Asia
2.1 Spread of English in Colonial India (including Bangladesh and Pakistan)
2.2 English in India after 1947
2.3 English in Pakistan after 1947
2.4 English in Bangladesh
2.5 English in Sri Lanka
2.6 English in Nepal
2.7 English in Bhutan
2.8 English in Maldives
2.9 English in Afghanistan
3 South Asian Englishes (SAEs)
4 Early Contact Varieties in South Asia
4.1 Chee Chee English
4.2 Butler English
4.3 Baboo or Babu English
4.4 Pidgin English of Bombay
4.5 Box‐wallah English
5 Main features of South Asian Englishes
5.1 Phonology
5.2 Morphology and lexicon
5.3 Syntactic Features
6 Conclusion
NOTES
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
8 English in Southeast Asia
1 Introduction
2 The Historical and Sociopolitical Aspects of English in Southeast Asia
2.1 English in Malaysia
2.2 English in Singapore
2.3 English in Brunei
2.4 English in the Philippines
2.5 English in Cambodia
2.6 English in Indonesia
2.7 English in Laos
2.8 English in Myanmar
2.9 English in Thailand
2.10 English in Vietnam
3 Linguistic Features of Outer Circle Englishes in Southeast Asia
3.1 Malaysian English
3.2 Singapore English
3.3 Brunei English
3.4 Philippine English
4 Linguistic Features of Expanding Circle Englishes in Southeast Asia
4.1 Cambodian English
4.2 Thai English
4.3 Vietnamese English
5 Conclusion
NOTE
REFERENCES
9 Southern African Englishes: Form and Functions
1 Introduction
2 The Forms of Southern African Englishes
2.1 Phonological features of Southern African Englishes
2.2 Lexical features of Southern African Englishes
2.3 Syntactic features of Southern African Englishes
3 The Functions of English in Southern Africa
4 Attitudes toward English in Southern Africa
5 Conclusion
REFERENCES
10 African Englishes and Creative Writing
1 Introduction
2 The Current Study
3 The Context of English in Africa
4 The Form and Functions of African Englishes
5 The Work of Chinua Achebe
6 Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o’s, Nwapa’s, and Okara’s Writings
7 Motivations and Justifications for Creating in English
8 Conclusion
NOTE
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
Fourth Diaspora
11 South American Englishes and Englishes in South America
1 Introduction
2 The Ubiquitous Language School
3 The Historical Antecedent
4 The Uses of English
5 The Varieties
6 The Domains of Use and Functions of English
7 Creativity
8 The Englishization of Names
9 Uses in Advertising
10 Legal Domains
11 Needs of Higher Education
12 English and the Internet
13 The Other South America
14 Conclusion
NOTES
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
12 Euro‐Englishes
1 Introduction
2 Europe and Kachru’s World Englishes Paradigm
3 History of English in Europe
4 The Coining of “Euro‐English”
5 English Use on the Supranational Level
6 English Use on the National Level
6.1 France
6.2 Finland
6.3 Germany
6.4 Russia
6.5 The Netherlands
7 Directions for Future Research
NOTES
REFERENCES
13 Russian Englishes
1 Introduction
2 Russian English as a multicultural term
3 Russian English as a Continuum Term
4 Russian English and Its Standards
5 Features of Russian English
6 Functions of Russian English
7 Englishization of Russian and Indigenous Languages
8 Conclusion
NOTES
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
14 East Asian Englishes
1 Introduction
2 China
2.1 The current English language situation and educational responses
2.2 Describing Chinese English
3 Japan
3.1 English in Japanese society
3.2 MEXT initiatives for improved ELT
3.3 Japanese English creativity
4 Korea (Republic of Korea)
4.1 Changes in ELT
4.2 English in Korea
4.3 Corpus‐based studies of Korean English
5 Taiwan (Republic of China)
5.1 Potential for English language spread
6 Conclusion
NOTES
REFERENCES
15 English in the People’s Republic of China
1 Introduction
2 The status and functions of English in mainland China
2.1 The status of English
2.2 The functions of English
2.3 Features of Chinese English
2.4 Chinese‐English code‐mixing
3 Conclusion
NOTES
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
Part II: Variational Contexts
16 Contact Linguistics and World Englishes
1 Introduction
2 Early Contact History
3 Sailors
4 Settlers and Traders
5 Missionaries
6 Soldiers
7 Teachers
8 Conclusion
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
17 Pidgins and Creoles
1 Introduction
2 What Are Creoles and Pidgins?
3 The Development of Creoles
4 Creolistics and General Linguistics
5 Conclusion
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
18 African‐American English
1 Introduction
2 The Descriptive Base of AAE
3 The Origin and Early Development of AAE
4 The Development of Contemporary AAE
5 Conclusion
NOTE
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
Part III: Acculturation
19 Written Language, Standard Language, Global Language
1 Introduction
2 Standard Variety of a Language
3 Sociolinguistic Context and Language
4 Standard vs. Global Language
5 Strategies for Making Meaning
6 Innovations in Meaning Potential
7 Translation as a Process of Metaphor
8 English as Global and International Language
9 Conclusion
NOTES
REFERENCES
20 Speaking and Writing in World Englishes
1 Introduction
2 Speech Acts
2.1 Cross‐cultural speech act research
2.2 Linguistic politeness
3 Rhetorical Strategies in Writing
4 Conclusion
NOTES
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
21 Genres and Styles in World Englishes
1 Introduction
2 Genre
3 Style
4 World Englishes
5 Liberal vs. Conservative Genres
6 Conclusion
NOTES
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
Part IV: Crossing Borders
22 The Literary Dimension of World Englishes
1 Introduction
2 The Spread of English
3 Broadening Perspectives
4 The Response to English
5 Impulses behind the New English Writing
6 The Writer and the Milieu
7 Multilingual Context and Linguistic Innovations
8 New Contexts for English
9 Models for the Spread of English
10 Conclusion
NOTES
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
23 Bilingual Language Play and World Englishes
1 Introduction
2 Creativity, Bilingual Creativity, and Language Play
3 Formal Aspect: Techniques of Bilingual Language Play
3.1 Bilingual punning
3.2 Bilingual language play on scripts and orthographies
3.3 Bilingual lexical hybridization
3.4 Bilingual rhyming
3.5 Mock Englishization of local languages or localization of English
3.6 Bilingual multimodal play
4 The Semantics of Bilingual Language Play
5 Bilingual Language Play and the Status of English
6 Future Directions for Research
7 Conclusion
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
NOTES
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
24 World Englishes and Issues of Intelligibility
1 Introduction
2 Defining Intelligibility
3 A Study of the Three Components
3.1 Test materials and procedures
3.2 The tests
3.3 Results and discussion
4 Conclusion
NOTE
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
APPENDIX
25 World Englishes and Culture Wars
1 Introduction
2 Cassandras of English
2.1 Demographic shrinking and decline
2.2 Severing the umbilical cord
3 Medium (Mādhyama) vs. Message (Mantra)
4 Exponents of Multiple Canonicity
5 Toward a Historiography of Canonicity
6 Approaches for Redefining Identities
6.1 Ritualistic and metaphysical
6.2 Strategic linguistic weapon
6.3 Contrastive pragmatism
7 The Outward Signs of Inward Fires
8 The War of Cultures and Canons
9 Conclusion
NOTES
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
Part V: Grammar Wars and Standards
26 Grammar Wars: Seventeenth‐ and Eighteenth‐Century England
1 Introduction
2 The Status of English vis‐à‐vis Latin
2.1 Latin or English?
2.2 The merits of English
2.3 Using Latin to standardize English
3 “Good Writing”’ versus “Good Grammar”
4 The Battle for a “Universal Grammar”
4.1 Repairing Babel
4.2 Universal grammar and practical grammars
5 Grammarians and Marginal Groups
5.1 Foreigners and national identity
5.2 Women
5.3 The middle class, grammar, and religion
6 Conclusion
NOTES
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
27 Grammar Wars: The United States
1 Introduction
2 Grammar Wars over Theory
2.1 Latinate and nativist grammars
2.2 Word‐focused and clause‐focused grammars
2.3 Historical, dialectal, and variation linguistics
2.4 Structuralism: Descriptive and generative
3 Grammar Wars over Usage
3.1 Purism and relativism
3.2 Ethnocentrism and multiculturalism: Back to the basics and the students’ right
3.3 Ethnocentrism and multiculturalism: Official English and non‐English languages
3.4 Generic masculine and sex‐neutral language: Terms for minorities
3.5 Usage and politics
4 Conclusion
REFERENCES
28 World Englishes and Descriptive Grammars
1 Introduction
2 Descriptive Grammar in Prescriptive and Historical Linguistic Traditions
3 World Englishes in Late Twentieth Century Descriptive Grammars
4 Theoretical Problems Inherited from Structuralism
5 Variationist Treatments of Grammar
6 Recent Developments in the Grammatical Description of World Englishes
7 Potential for the Grammatical Description of World Englishes
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
29 World Englishes and Corpora Studies
1 Introduction
2 Electronic Corpora
3 The International Corpus of English
4 Corpus‐based Studies of World Englishes
5 Corpora and the Internet
6 The International Corpus of Learner English
7 Conclusion
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
Part VI: Ideology, Identity, and Constructs
30 Colonial/Postcolonial Critique: The Challenge from World Englishes
1 Introduction
2 Colonial Discourse and Postcolonial Critique
3 Orientalism and World Englishes
4 A Return to Liberal Humanism
5 Cultural and Linguistic Complexity
6 The Challenge from World Englishes
7 World Englishes Against Relativism
8 Beyond Orientalism
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
31 Postcolonial Theory and World Englishes: Toward a Dialogue
1 Introduction
2 Conceptualizing Postcolonialism
3 Relation of Postcolonial Studies to World Englishes
4 The Concept of the Public Sphere
5 Metaphoric Selves and Postcolonial Studies
6 Hybridity
7 Conclusion
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
32 Creative Acts of Gender in World Englishes
1 Introduction
2 The Sociolinguistic Creativity of English and Gender
3 Relevance of English, Gender, and Power
4 The Power of English in Practice
5 Constructing Gender Identity in Spoken and Written Discourse
6 Bilingual Women’s Literary Creative Acts
7 Contextualizing Gender in Multimediums
8 Conclusion
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
Part VII: World Englishes and Globalization
33 World Englishes in the Media
1 Introduction
2 Approaches to Media Communication Analysis
3 Power and Ideology
4 Linguistic and Cultural Identities
5 Language Attitudes
6 Intelligibility and Linguistic Innovation
7 Electronic Media
8 Popular Music
9 Legislation
10 Directions for Future Research
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
34 World Englishes and Global Advertising
1 Introduction
2 English Users and Advertising
3 Key Issues
3.1 Standardization vs. adaptation
3.2 Language choice and language attitude
3.3 Audience reach and modality choice
4 Approaches
5 Multiple Mixing and World Englishes
5.1 Mixing of world Englishes
5.2 Product naming and world Englishes
5.3 Mixing of world Englishes accents
5.4 English mixing in non‐English advertising
6 Laws and Regulations
7 World Englishes in Roman Scripts (Monoscripting) and Language Attitudes
8 Determinants and Functions of World Englishes
9 Globalization: Resolving the Global vs. Local Paradox
9.1 Think global and act global
9.2 Think local and act local
9.3 Cross‐cultural translations and intelligibility
10 Conclusion
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
35 World Englishes and Global Commerce
1 Introduction
2 English and Professional Discourse in the Outer and Expanding Circles
2.1 Asia
2.2 Europe
2.3 Lesser‐studied regions: The Americas, the Middle East, Africa, Oceania
2.4 Additional resources
3 Culture, Business Culture, and Englishes
4 Genre Analysis and Business Letter Writing
5 Talking Business: Meeting and Negotiating
5.1 Meetings
5.2 Negotiation
6 World Englishes, Commerce, and Standards
7 Ethics and Teaching for Specific Purposes
8 Conclusion
NOTE
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
Part VIII: World Englishes and Applied Theory
36 A Recurring Decimal: English in Language Policya nd Planning
1 Introduction
2 Recurrence of English in Language Policy Discourse
3 Choice and the Hegemony of English
4 Effect of the Hegemony of English
5 Broader Issues in the Context of English Hegemony
6 Implications for Language Policy and Planning
7 Conclusion
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
37 World Englishes and Communicative Competence
1 Introduction
2 Communicative Competence: Sources
3 Communicative Competence and the World Englishes Paradigm
4 Communicative Competence Applied: Controversies
5 Communicative Competence Applied: Explorations
6 Communicative Competence and Pedagogical Theory
7 Conclusion
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
38 World Englishes and Pedagogy
1 Introduction
2 WE‐informed ELT
2.1 Reconceptualizing English varieties
2.2 Reconceptualizing English‐speaking culture(s)
2.3 Reconceptualizing English users
2.4 Reconceptualizing correctness
2.5 Resources for WE‐informed ELT
2.6 Program examples
3 Courses about World Englishes
3.1 Content of a WE course
3.2 Resources for teaching a WE course
3.3 Program examples
4 Conclusion
NOTES
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
39 World Englishes and International Standardized English Proficiency Tests
1 Introduction
2 How Do the TOEFL iBT, TOEIC, and IELTS Present Themselves?
2.1 TOEFL iBT
2.2 TOEIC
2.3 IELTS
3 What Is English Language Proficiency?
3.1 What is the English language?
3.2 What is proficiency?
3.3 What is English language proficiency?
3.4 Is traditional ELP a single scale?
3.5 Is ELP multidimensional?
4 Why are Persons Important in Testing ELP?
5 How Can We Move Forward in Changing the ISELPTs?
5.1 Some change in the ISELPTs is already happening
5.2 Weak and strong approaches to changing the ISELPTs
6 What Are Some Alternative Approaches to ELP?
7 Top‐Down, Language‐Focused Approaches
7.1 Truth‐in‐advertising approach
7.2 Multiple WE approach
7.3 An ELF approach
7.4 GES approach
7.5 Functional approach
8 Bottom‐Up, Person‐Focused Approaches
8.1 Effective communicator approach
8.2 Scope of proficiency approach
8.3 Scale of range approach
8.4 EIL intelligibility approach
8.5 Resourcefulness approach
8.6 Symbolic competence approach
8.7 Intercultural communication skills approach
8.8 Performative ability approach
8.9 The many possibilities considered together
9 How Can Alternative ELP Approaches be Assessed?
10 Conclusion
NOTES
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
40 World Englishes and Lexicography
1 Introduction
2 Legitimacy and the Dictionary
3 Standards and the Dictionary
4 The Idea of a Dictionary
5 The Concept “Englishes”
6 Prescriptivism vs. Descriptivism
7 Standards and Norms
8 Toward a Theoretical Model
9 The Dictionary Tradition of English
10 Conclusion
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
Part IX: Outlook for the Future
41 World Englishes: Current Debates and Future Directions
1 Introduction
2 The Scope of World Englishes Studies
3 World Englishes as a Discipline
4 Disciplinary Debates
5 Future Directions for World Englishes
NOTE
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
42 The Karmic Cycle of World Englishes: Some Futuristic Constructs
1 Introduction
2 Spread of English
3 Impact of Transplanted Englishes
4 Acculturation and Nativization
5 Implications for Linguistic Theory
6 Is There a World (Global, Lingua Franca) English?
7 The Future of Englishes
8 Conclusion
NOTES
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
Index