The Handbook Of Security

Acknowledgements
Contents
Notes on Contributors
List of Figures
List of Tables
1: Introducing the Handbook of Security
The Third Edition of the Handbook of Security
The Subject Area of Security
Offence Types
Crime and Security in Different Domains
Researching Security
Security Products and Services
Towards a Better Security
The Impact of Security
References
Part I: The Subject Area of Security
2: Security: History, Genealogy, Ideology
Introduction
Security as Genealogy and Ideology
Beyond the State Monopolisation Thesis?
Conclusion: Security Agencies
Recommended Readings
References
3: The New Security: Shifting the Boundaries
Introduction
Redefining Security
Human Security
Personal Security
Campus Security
Employment Security
Housing Security
Food Security
Conclusion
Recommended Readings
References
4: Explaining the Impact and Implications of COVID-19 on Crime Rates: A Criminological Perspective
Introduction
COVID-19: Lockdown, Partial Lockdowns and Unlocking
Crime and Disorder 2020–2021
Lockdown-Related Crimes
Policing Lockdown
Future Crime and Disorder Possibilities
Recommended Readings
References
5: Forensic Intelligence and Traceology in Digitalised Environments: The Detection and Analysis of Crime Patterns to Inform Practice
Introduction: Forensic Science and Security
Forensic Science, Traceology and Crime Analysis
Context of the Three Projects: Decentralised Forensic Activities
System 1: Physical Traces and the Analysis of High Volume Crimes
Case Study
Results in Numbers
System 2: Forensic Document Examination and the Analysis of Identity Frauds
Case Study
Results in Numbers
System 3: Internet Traces and the Analysis of High Volume Online Crimes
Case Study
Results in Numbers
Conclusion
Recommended Readings
References
6: Changing Threats and Challenges in International Relations: Debating (in)Securities and Ways to Manage Them
Introduction
Something New on the Horizon? International Relations, Security Studies and the New Panorama of Security
From Theory to Practice: Non-state Security Challenges
Responses to Security Challenges and Contributions to the Field: From States to Non-state Actors
Group 1: Close Relationship
Group 2: Loose Relationship
Group 3: Separation
Concluding Remarks
Recommended Readings
References
7: Private Security/Private Military: One Phenomenon or Two?
Introduction
Growth Patterns
Market Structure
Regulation
Conclusion
Recommended Readings
References
Part II: Offence Types
8: The Evolution of the Terrorism and Extremism Landscape in the Age of COVID-19
Introduction
The Global Islamist Extremist Threat: As Resilient as Ever
The Global Rise of the Extreme Right
The White Supremacist Extreme Right
The Buddhist Extreme Right
The Hindu Extreme Right
The COVID-19 Complication
The Importance of Strategic Dexterity
References
9: Violence Against Shop Workers: Trends and Triggers in the United Kingdom
Introduction
Trends in Violence and Abuse Towards Shop Workers
The Context of Violence and Verbal Abuse Towards Shop Workers
Encountering Shoplifters
Enforcing Legislation Relating to the Sale of Age-Restricted Goods and Other Prohibited Sales
Armed and Unarmed Robbery
Hate Motivated Incidents
COVID-19 Restrictions and Rules
The Impact of Violence and Verbal Abuse
Tackling Violence and Verbal Abuse Towards Shop Workers
Security Strategies
Legislative Reform
Societal Changes
Conclusion
Recommend Readings
References
10: Burglary Research and Conceptualizing the Community Security Function, a Learning Organization
Introduction
Realities of the Community Security Function
The Community Security Function as a Learning Organization
Burglary, Burglars, and Research History
Burglars: Their Conduct and Thinking
Burglar Beliefs About Rewards of the Craft
What Is an Expert Burglar?
Can CSFs Learn from What Burglars Learn on the Job?
Are Burglars Consistent in Their Manner of Burglary Execution?
Targets: Distance, Criteria, and Approaches
Distance Traveled to Targets
Circumstances Change and So Does Burglar Decision-Making
Accessibility: Gated Versus Non-gated Communities
Neighboring Businesses as Crime Attractors
Job Loss and Burglary Targetability: Slim Pickings and Capable Guardians
Home Vacancies and Burglary Targets: Better Pickings at Empty Homes
Prevention: What Works, and What Is Problematic?
Political Pressures on Scientific Findings
Willingness to Pay (WPT) for Residential Security Costs: Adjusting Security Expectations
Alarms and CCTV Systems: The Holy Grail?
Preventing the Optimal Forager from Doing His Work
Dealing with Repeat and Near-Repeat Burglaries
What About Security for Elderly Persons?
Summing Up
Recommended Readings
References
11: Meeting the Challenges of Fraud in a Digital World
Introduction
Understanding Categories of Fraud
Advance Fee Fraud
Romance Fraud
Business Email Compromise Fraud
Successful Techniques of Perpetrating Fraud
Social Engineering
Psychological Abuse
Understanding Vulnerability to Fraud
The Impact of Fraud Victimisation
The Policing of Fraud
The Prevention of Fraud
Supporting Victims of Fraud
Senior Support Unit (Canada)
IDCARE
Conclusion
Recommended Readings
References
12: Examining Private Sector Strategies for Preventing Insurance Fraud
Introduction
The Nature of Insurance Fraud
Current Trends in Insurance Fraud
The Drivers of Insurance Fraud Offending
External (Policyholder) Fraud
Internal Fraud
Developing Effective Prevention Strategies
Engaging with the Public
Effective Detection of Risk
Corporate Culture
Conclusion
Recommended Readings
References
13: Economic and Industrial Espionage: Characteristics, Techniques and Response
Introduction
Defining Economic and Industrial Espionage
Purpose of Economic and Industrial Espionage
The Law and Economic and Industrial Espionage
Perpetrators of Economic and Industrial Espionage
Techniques
How Much Economic and Industrial Espionage Is There?
Responding to Economic and Industrial Espionage
Conclusion
Recommended Readings
References
14: Combatting Money Laundering: Some Considerations for Security Professionals
Introduction
What Is Money Laundering, and How Does ‘It’ Work?
Strategy and Evidence in Fighting Crimes for Gain
Rethinking Risks and Measures
The Harms of Money Laundering
Effectiveness: Time for a Serious Re-think
Recommended Readings
References
15: Corruption, Bribery and Corporate Crime: Victims and Perpetrators
Introduction
Corruption and Its Consequences
Concept of Corruption
Consequences of Corruption
Extent of Corruption
Why Do People and Corporations Perpetrate Corruption?
Understanding Offenders’ Motivations in Commercial Bribery
Rational Choice Theory
Strain and Anomie Theory
Differential Association
Control Theory
Neutralisation or Rationalisation Theory
Opportunity Theory
Explaining the Situational Factors in Commercial Bribery: Pathogen Theory
Corruptor Pathogen
Submissive Pathogen
Resident Pathogen
The Corruption Pathogen Model
The Problem of International Bribery
Discussion and Conclusion: Beyond Victims and Perpetrators
Recommended Readings
References
Legislation, International Treaties, and Judgments
Books and Articles
Part III: Crime and Security in Different Domains
16: Securing the Bioeconomy: Exploring the Role of Cyberbiosecurity
Introduction
The Bioeconomy
Risk and Threat Context
National and Transnational Security Risks
Pharmaceuticals and Health
Biotechnology
Mitigation Strategies
Policy and Legal Measures
Risk and Threat Management
Workforce Planning
Conclusion
Recommended Readings
References
17: Border Security: An Essential but Effective Tool in Combatting Cross-Border Crime
Introduction
International Regulatory Framework with Reference to Border Controls/Security and Transnational Organised Crime
Reinforcement of Border Security with United Nations Conventions
Exploitation of Problems at Ports of Entry/Border Posts by Organised Crime
The Impact Significance of the 9/11 Attacks on Border Security
‘Smart’ Borders
Some Concluding Remarks
Recommended Readings
References
18: Security in the Chemical Industry: Theory and Practice
Introduction
Security Theories
Detection-Delay-Response Theory
Rings of Protection
Swiss Cheese Model
Security Risk Assessment and Management Approach
SRA Method
Game-Theoretical Approach for Security
Network-Based Security Approach
Economic Security Approach
Security of Domino Effects in Chemical Plants
Conclusions
Recommended Readings
References
19: The Evolution of College and University Campus Security in the United States: Congressional Legislation, Administrative Directives, and Policing
The Evolution of Federal Legislative and Administrative Directives
Congressional Legislation
Amendments to the Higher Education Act of 1965
The Violence Against Women Act
Administrative Guidance and Rulemaking
Guidance on Title IX
Additional Amendments
The Evolution of Campus Security and Policing
In Loco Parentis and Campus Security
Watchmen and Campus Security
Campus Police Departments
Professionalization of Campus Policing
The Student Right-to-Know and Campus Security Act of 1990
The Jeanne Clery Disclosure of Campus Security Policy and Campus Crime Statistics Act
COP on Campus
Higher Education Opportunity Act of 2008
Violence Against Women Reauthorization Act of 2013
Conclusion
Recommended Readings
References
20: Addressing the Security Issues Related to Illegal Commercial Fishing
Introduction: The Harms of IUU Fishing
IUU Fishing and Associated Crimes
Regulation and Management
Regulation
Management
Crime Science and the Prevention of IUU Fishing
Brief Account of Crime Science
Three Specific Crime Science Approaches to Prevent IUU Fishing
Conclusion
Recommended Readings
References
21: Crime on the Darknet: The Case of Brand Abuse
Introduction
The Darknet and its Dark Side
Method: Collecting Secondary Data in Darknet Markets
Findings
Discussion
Conclusion
Recommended Readings
References
22: Representing Security: A Popular Criminology of Private Policing in Film
Introduction
Police and Private Security Films
A Popular Criminology of Private Security Films
The Spaces and Places of Private Security
Gender and Masculinities in Private Security Films
Private Security as a Junior Partner to Public Police
Discussion and Points of Critical Departure
Conclusion
Recommended Readings
References
Part IV: Researching Security
23: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Security
An Ethical Imperative
Narrative Reviews
Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
Systematic Review
Meta-analysis
The Benefits of Meta-analysis
The Criticisms of Meta-analysis
Meta-analyses in the Security Field
Example Application of EMMIE
E—How Effective Is This Intervention?
M—Mechanism—How Does the Intervention Work?
M—Moderator—Which Contexts Does the Street Lighting Intervention Work Best?
I—Implementation
E—Economic Costs
Summarising Welsh and Farrington (2008)
Concluding Remarks
Recommended Readings
References
24: Realistic Evaluation and the 5Is: A Systematic Approach for Evaluating Security Interventions
Introduction
The Use of Realistic Evaluations and 5Is in the Security Field
Security Professionals and the Challenges of Evaluation
Realistic Evaluation
The 5Is Framework for Crime Prevention
Combining Realistic Evaluation and the 5Is?
A Hypothetical Worked Example
Conclusion
Recommended Readings
References
25: Script Analysis for Security Professionals: Past, Present and Future
Introduction
Crimes as Scripts
Crime Scripts
The Routinized yet Flexible Nature of Crime Scripts
Scripting Preventive and Protective Security Controls
Documented Practice
Cybercrime
Corruption and Fraud Offences
Robbery and Theft Offences
Violent Crime
Recent Advances in Script Analysis
Combining Methods
Future Development Needs
The Need for a More Structured Scripting Methodology
‘Garbage in, Garbage out’
Theoretical Considerations
Conclusion
Recommended Readings
References
26: Using Mobile Applications and Physiological Sensing to Measure Perception of Security in Built Environments
Introduction
Perceived Security of Place
Issue 1: ‘Place’-ing Experiences of (In)Security
Issue 2: Capturing Experience
Issue 3: Linking to Environmental Context
The Future of Mobile Applications and Physiological Sensing to Measure Perception of (In)Security in Built Environments
Recommended Readings
References
27: Researching the Relationship Between Tourism, Crime and Security: The Tourism Industry and the Disenfranchised Citizens
Introduction
Official Statistics: The Available and the Feasible
Official Crime Statistics
Alternative Secondary Data Sources
Alternative Research Approaches
Offender Surveys
Surveys of Local Residents
Surveys of Tourists
Summary
Recommended Reading
References
Part V: Security Products and Services
28: The Security Officer: Overextended and Underappreciated
Introduction
The Size of the Frontline Security Industry
Security Officers’ Functions and Duties
Working Conditions in Frontline Security
Perceptions of Frontline Security
Security Officer Motivation and Job Satisfaction
Citizen Perceptions of Security Officers
Security Officers’ Relationships with the Police
Conclusion
Key Readings
References
29: Training and Education Within the Security Sector: Challenges and Opportunities for Development
Introduction
The Changing Role
Image and Perception
Time Spent on Training
Training and Qualification
Regulation
Barriers to Progression
Sector and Voluntary Training
Trainers and Delivery
Conclusion
Bibliography
30: Private and Corporate Investigations: Internal Security Governance Within Organisations
Introduction
Corporate Investigations
Corporate Settlements
Discussion: The Implications of Corporate Systems of Investigations and Justice
Recommended Readings
References
31: CCTV as a Socio-technology
Introduction
The Socio-technical Argument in Short
CCTV as a Socio-technology: Interplay as a Value Nexus
A Socio-technical Perspective on the Use of CCTV in Stockholm Public Transport
Social and Technical Disconnects: The Case of Hotspot Surveillance in Stockholm
Moving Forward with a Socio-technical Perspective
Conclusions
Recommended Readings
References
32: Intrusion Detection Systems in Physical Security
Introduction
What Is an Intrusion Detection System?
Theories to Support Intrusion Detection Systems
Security in Depth
Defence in Depth
Principle of Intrusion Detection
Geometry of Intrusion Detection
Taxonomy of Sensing Detectors
Elements of an Intrusion Detection System
Levels of Applied Detection
The Efficacy of Intrusion Detection Systems
Detection Capability: Do Intrusion Detection Systems Detect?
Do Intrusion Detection Systems Deter?
Who Uses Intrusion Detections Systems?
Application Issues with Intrusion Detection Systems
Quality of Design and Installations
The Impact of Nuisance Alarms
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
References
33: Crime and the Consumer Internet of Things
Introduction
Method
Academic Systematic Review
Open-Source Media Review
Search Terms for Consumer IoT Devices
Inclusion Criteria
Results
Types of Attack
Intermediate Outcomes
Types of Crime
Crimes Committed Using IoT Botnets and Malware
Accessing Wider Networks and Denial of Use
Unauthorised Surveillance
Manipulation of Smart Utilities and Infrastructure
Smart Device Privacy and Security
Unexpected IoT Device Behaviour
Discussion
Recommended Readings
References
Part VI: Towards a Better Security
34: Professional Security in the Fourth Industrial Revolution
Introduction
The Characteristics of Professions
Confronting the Fourth Industrial Revolution
The Security Profession in the Fourth Industrial Revolution
The Evolution of Professional Security
The Convergence of Physical and Information Security
The ‘New Security Credentialism’
Conclusion
Recommended Readings
References
35: Security or Liberty? Human Rights and Protest
The Current Legal Position in the UK
The Suppression of Peaceful Protest
Global Suppression
Conclusion
Recommended Readings
References
36: Facilitating Best Practice in Security: The Role of Regulation
Regulation and Regulatory Theory
The Evolution of Security Industry Regulation
The Rationale for Regulation: Limiting Abuses
The Rationale for Regulation: Enabling Security
Security Industry Regulatory Contexts
Criminal Law
Civil Law
Market Forces, Commercial Law and Employment Law
Industry-Specific Regulation
Self-regulation
Co-regulation
Special Government Regulation
Critiquing Special Government Regulation
Smart Regulation for the Security Industry
Smart Regulation: A Minimal Model
Smart Regulation: Optimising Crime Prevention
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
References
37: The Necessary Yet Nebulous Nature of the Informal Security Sector in South Africa
Introduction
A Brief History of (In)Security in South Africa
Informal Security Nodes in South Africa
The Case of Mmakau
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
References
38: Facing the Future: The Role of Horizon-Scanning in Helping Security Keep Up with the Changes to Come
Introduction
How Does Security Face the Future?
The Challenges of Anticipation
What Is Horizon-Scanning?
The Purposes of Horizon-Scanning
The Ingredients of Horizon-Scanning
Futures Mindset
Background Changes
Use of Research
Data Sources
Uncertainty
Controversy, Complication and Complexity
Views of Future Worlds
Scenarios
Narratives
Simulations
Graphical Representations
Enter Crime Science
Causation and Intervention
Doing Crime Prevention, Policing and Security
Innovations: Supply and Demand
Crime Futures Research
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
References
39: The Securitization of Terrestrial Protected Areas
Introduction
Protectionist and Community-Based Natural Resource Management Models for Protected Areas
The Framing of the Contemporary Securitization of Protected Areas
Taking Stock of the Securitization of Protected Areas
Role and Role Orientation of PA Authorities
Technology and Training PA Authorities
Community–PA Authorities’ Relations
Discussion
Recommended Reading
References
40: The Carbon Footprint of Crime and Security
Introduction
Background
Methodology
Carbon Footprinting Crime Prevention Measures
Number of Security Measures Installed per Household Assumptions
Establishing Low-Carbon and Effective Measures
Results
Product Footprints
Household Footprint and Comparison with Footprint of Burglary
Carbon Payback and Crime Prevention Effectiveness
Discussion
The Way Forward
Decreasing the Carbon Footprint of Burglary Prevention
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
References
Part VII: The Impact of Security
41: Security and International Crime Drops
Introduction
The International Crime Drop
The Role of Security Measures in Producing Falls in Vehicle Theft and Domestic Burglary
Security and Criminality
Good Security
Producing Good Security
Conclusion
Recommended Readings
Bibliography
42: The Role of Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) in Improving Household Security
Burglary Risk
Security Measures
Design and Layout
Street Networks
Implementing CPTED in the UK
Consideration for Crime Prevention Within Planning Policy
The Secured by Design (SBD) Award
Replication
Explaining Replication Failure
How Can This Apply to SBD?
A Concluding Word on Re-orienting the Focus
Recommended Readings
References
43: Examining the Use of Video Technologies in Retailing
Context
Research Methodology
Understanding the Retail Decision to Invest in Video Technologies
Developing a Video Utilisation Framework for Retail
Delivering Deterrence
Creating ‘Personalised’ Deterrence
Body Worn Cameras
Face Boxing
Self-Checkout Personal Display Monitors
Undertaking Reviews
Collating Evidence to Support Prosecutions and Alerting Store Teams
Scrutinising Exception Reports on Sales Transactions
Assessing Health and Safety Incidents
Carrying Out Monitoring
Centralised Monitoring
In-store Monitoring
Ensuring Compliance
Meeting Legal Requirements
Influencing Staff Behaviour
Generating a Response
Store Panic Alarms
Providing Reassurance
Staff and Public Safety
Informing and Enabling the Business
Understanding Customer Behaviours
Store Design Reviews
Identifying, Detecting and Alerting: Video Analytics
Summarising the Utilisation of Video Technologies in Retailing
Recommended Readings
References
44: Making an Economic Case for Security
Conceptual Foundations of CBA
Conducting CBAs
Step 1: Specify the Set of Alternative Projects
Step 2: Decide Whose Benefits and Costs Count (Standing)
Step 3: Identify and Catalogue Impact Categories and Select Measurement Indicators
Step 4: Predict the Impacts Quantitatively over the Life of the Project
Step 5: Monetise (Attach Monetary Values to) All Impacts
Step 6: Discount Benefits and Costs to Obtain Present Values
Step 7: Compute the Net Present Value of Each Alternative
Step 8: Perform Sensitivity Analysis
Step 9: Make a Recommendation
Examples of Security-Related Economic Analysis
Improving the Economic Evidence
Recommended Readings
References
45: Business Resilience to Crime: The Harms of Crime, Security and Crime Tolerance
Introduction: Commercial Victimisation, Harms and Resilience to Crime
Methodology: Data and the Operationalisation of Concepts
Developing Harms Measures
Developing Security and Resilience Measures
Findings
Harms of Crime to Businesses
Security, Harms and Resilience to Crime
Conclusions: Implications for Security and Future Research
Recommended Readings
References
46: Thinking About the Benefits of Security, and the Barriers to Recognising Them
Understanding the Benefits
The Challenge of a National Strategy
Praise with Caution: A Note
The Impact of Covid-19: Did the Security Sector Respond Well?
Discussion
Recommended Readings
References
Index