The Handbook of Mummy Studies: New Frontiers in Scientific and Cultural Perspectives

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
About the Editors
About the Section Editors
Contributors
Part I: General Aspect of Mummy Studies
1 History of Mummy Studies
Introduction
Egypt
Egyptian Mummies
European Tourism Begins: ~450 BCE
The Influence of Egyptian Mummification Upon Egyptian and Greek Medical Practice
The Medieval Period (476-1500 CE), the Renaissance (1300-1600 CE), and the Emergence of the ``Mummy´´
Era of European Exploration and Discovery (15th-17th Centuries)
The Colonization of the Canary Islands
The Spanish Conquest of the South American Andes
The 17th, 18th, and early 19th Centuries: Collecting, Spectacles, and Stirrings of Science
Unwrapping Egyptian Mummies in Europe
Napoleon and the Savants (1798-1801)
Nineteenth- and Early Twentieth-Century Spectacles and Science
Egyptomanie and Unrolling Mummies
Nineteenth-Century Scientific Study of Egyptian Mummies in the UK
Eighteenth to Twentieth Centuries: Scientific Observations in South America Begin and the Earliest Prepared, Artificial Mummie...
Collecting and Viewing Mummies in North America
Nineteenth-Century American Scientific Contributions to the Egyptian Question
Early Twentieth Century
Egypt: Moving Beyond Racial Studies to Mummy Science
Summary, Conclusions, and Fast Forward to the Twenty-First Century
Cross-References
References
2 Dried, Tanned, Frozen, Embalmed, Smoked: A Glimpse into Mummification Mechanisms
Introduction
Postmortem Decay
Enzymatic Inhibition
Spontaneous Mummification
Anthropogenic Mummification
Forensic Significance of Mummy Studies
Conclusions
References
3 Showing Respect to the Dead: The Ethics of Studying, Displaying, and Repatriating Mummified Human Remains
Introduction
Why Do We Need to Discuss Ethics in Relation to Mummies?
Key Definitions
Mummy
Ethics
Areas of Morality and Ethics in the Mummy Field
Methodological Approaches to the Excavation, Analysis, and Conservation of Mummies
Medical Imaging
Minimally Destructive Analyses
Consent
Acquiring Mummies
Museum Acquisition
Buying, Selling, and Trading Human Mummies
Display of Mummies
Museums and Commercial Exhibitions
Photography
Disposal and Repatriation of Mummies
Mummy Disposal in the Past
Repatriation
The Repatriation Julia Pastrana, Saartjie Baartman, and Maori Te Moko
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
4 Ethical Considerations of Anthropologists´ Fieldwork
Introduction
To Study or not to Study Human Remains?
Burial Laws and Regulations
The United States
Burial Laws Outside of the United States
Ethical Considerations of Methodologies
Nondestructive Methodologies
Destructive Methodologies
Discussion
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
5 Radiological and Ethical Considerations of Autopsy in Mummy Study
Introduction
Mummified Organs on CT Images
Intestines and Coprolites
Paleopathology Revealed by Post-factum Autopsy
Anatomical Confirmation of Ancient Atherosclerosis
Calcified Pulmonary Nodules and Tuberculosis
Post-factum Autopsy to Confirm Cardiac Structures
Checklist and Ethics for Mummy Autopsy
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
6 Paleo-Oncology and Mummies
Introduction
The Pathobiology of Cancer
General Aspects of ``Tumors´´ in Paleopathology
Malignant Tumors in Mummies/Skeletonized Mummies
Paleo-Epidemiology of Cancer
Molecular Evidence for the Presence of Viral Carcinogenic Factors
Evidence for Other Carcinogens in History
Perspectives
References
7 The Burden of Arteriosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease in Ancient Populations
Introduction
Atherosclerotic Vascular Disease: Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestations
Literary Evidence for Atherosclerosis
Paleopathological Identification
Atherosclerosis
Histological Evidence for Cardiovascular Disease
Paleoradiological Evidence
Further Methods of Identification of Vascular Diseases in Human History: The Paleopathographical Approach
Limitations and Pitfalls in the Paleopathology of Vascular Diseases
Potential Future Solutions
Molecular Evidence for Enhanced Arteriosclerosis Risk
Near Infra-Red Spectroscopy in Early Stage Atherosclerosis Plaques
Perspectives
References
Part II: Research Techniques of Mummy Studies
8 Craniofacial Reconstruction in Mummy Studies
Introduction
The CFR Technique
CFR of a Mummy
Testing the Accuracy of the Mummy CFR
Portrait Based on the CFR
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
9 Endoscopy in Mummy Studies
Introduction
Antipathy to Invasive Studies
Technical Shortcomings of Noninvasive Mummy Research
Brief History of Endoscopic Analysis on Mummies
Endoscopic Examinations on Mummies
Endoscopy and Related Scientific Research
Endoscopy in the Field
Ethics of Endoscopy
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
10 Stable Isotope Analysis in Archaeological Science and Mummy Studies
Introduction
Isotopes
Dietary Estimation Based on Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Ratios
Plants
Animals
Estimation of Origin and Migration Based on Strontium, Sulfur, Hydrogen, and Oxygen Isotope Ratios
Different Time Scales of each Type of Body Tissue
Isotopic Analyses of Mummies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
11 Radiology Applications in Mummy Science
Introduction
Brief History of Radiology as Applied to Mummy Science
Mummification Processes and Preservation of Bony Material and Soft Tissue: A Justification for Paleoimaging
Paleoradiology/Paleoimaging: Applications in Bioarchaeological Studies
Radiological Modalities and Complementary Paleoimaging Methods
Field Imaging
Radiography in Field Settings
Endoscopy as a Complementary Field Method
Field Imaging: A Conceptual Framework
Advanced Imaging
MDCT
Dual-Energy-Computed Tomography
Multiplanar Reformatting and 3D Postprocessing
Micro-CT
Digital Volume Tomography (DVT)
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MR)
Value-Added Data: What Can be Learned
Practical Guide to the Application of Radiological Methods to Mummy Science
Study Designs
Workflow: Multistation Design
Teleradiology
Triage and Ethical Decision-Making
Case and Population Imaging Studies
Data Archiving
Limitations and Opportunities in Paleoimaging
Challenges Related to Technology
Challenges to Data Collection
Interpretational Challenges
Medical Versus Bioarchaeological Approach
Diagnosis by Consensus Comments
Training Challenges
Looking Forward: Opportunities
New Emerging Technologies/Instrumentation/Tele-Interpretations
Standards in Paleoimaging
Bioarchaeology of Care Applications
Chapter Summary
References
12 Medical Imaging in Mummy Studies
Introduction
X-ray in General
Dual Energy Machines
Other Imaging Modalities and Their Appropriateness
Ultrasound
MRI
Terahertz Imaging
Medical Imaging for Archaeology
Radiation Damage to Ancient DNA
Benefits and Disadvantages
The Future
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Part III: Ancient DNA Analysis and Mummy Research
13 History of Ancient DNA Analysis in Mummy Research
Introduction
Analysis of Mitogenome
DNA Fingerprinting Techniques
Tuberculosis
Archaeoparasitology
Chagas´ Disease
Hepatitis B Virus
Smallpox
Helicobacter pylori
Genetic Predispositions to Diseases
Breakthroughs in aDNA Analyses of Mummies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
14 Current Trends in Ancient DNA Study
Introduction
Population Genomics of Archaic Hominins
Archaeogenetics in Africa
The Early Structure within Eastern Eurasians and the Coastal Migration Hypothesis
The ``Population Y´´ Hypothesis and Peopling of the Americas
The Genetic History of Domesticated Animals
Past Genomic Diversity in Wildlife
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
15 Ancient DNA Study
Introduction
Removal of Sequencing Adapter and Barcode Sequences
Mapping to the Reference Genome Sequence and Subsequent Read Filtering
Assessment of Post-mortem Chemical Damages
Assessment of Contamination Level
Genotype Calling
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
16 Ancient DNA and Paleoparasitology in Brazil
Introduction
Ancient DNA: The Beginning
Ancient DNA: Peculiarities
Experimental Paleoparasitology
Paleoparasitology and Paleogenetics
Paleogenetic Collection Approach
Molecular Paleoparasitology Lab
Molecular Paleoparasitological Methodology
Paleoparasitology and Paleogenetic in Brazil
Tuberculosis
Treponematoses
American Trypanosomiasis Americana
Intestinal Parasitosis
Final Considerations
References
17 Analysis of Low Copy Number DNA and Degraded DNA
Introduction
Key Characteristics of Ancient DNA
DNA Degradation
LCN DNA
Detection of Quality and Quantity of DNA
Gel Electrophoresis
Quantitative PCR (qPCR)
Detection of DNA Damage from MPS Data
Analysis of Degraded DNA and LCN DNA
Mitochondrial DNA Analysis
Use of Small-Sized PCR Products
Improving DNA Recovery
Massive Parallel Sequencing
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
18 A Primer on the Population Genetic Analysis of Ancient Genomes
Introduction
Relatedness and Recent Consanguinity
Population Structure and Data Overview
Modeling of Population Relationship: F-Statistics and Their Extensions
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
19 Application of SNP-Based DNA Phenotyping to Archaeological and Forensic Cases
Introduction
DNA-Based Prediction of Pigmentation Traits
Eye Color Prediction
Hair Color Prediction
Skin Color Prediction
Pigmentation Prediction in Archaeological and Forensic Samples
Prediction of Pigmentation Traits in Historical Figures and Forensic Identification Cases
Prediction of Pigmentation Traits in Ancient Samples
Perspectives on SNP-Based Phenotype Prediction in Mummy Studies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Part IV: Archaeoparasitology
20 Mummies, Parasites, and Pathoecology in the Ancient Americas
Introduction: Pathoecology
Methods
Avoiding Destructive Autopsy in Mummy Parasitology
Laboratory Analysis
Methods of Choice
Parasites Found in Mummies: Parasite Life Cycles and Nidi
Adenocephalus pacificus
Hookworms
Whipworms
Ascaris
Pinworms
Echinostoma
Lice
Fleas
Trypanosomes
Pathoecology in Mummy Populations
Chinchorro Pathoecology
Chinchorro and Chagas
Lessons of Pathoecology for the Chinchorro
Chiribaya of Southern Perú
Coastal Site - San Gerónimo
Farming Village - Chiribaya Baja
Administrative and Economic Center - Chiribaya Alta
El Yaral - Herding Village
Chiribaya Pathoecology
Ectoparasites
Intestinal Helminths
Chagas Disease
Summary of Chiribaya Pathoecology
Isolated Mummy Pathoecology
Lapa do Boquete, Peruaçu, Minas Gerais, Brazil
Chagas Disease in the Texas-Coahuila Border
Prehistoric Human Migrations - Mummies and the Big Picture
The Serial Nature of Mummy Studies
Mummy Studies and The Stockholm Paradigm: Understanding How Parasites Colonize New Hosts
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
21 Archaeoparasitology of Korean Mummies
Introduction
Archaeoparasitological Research on Korean Mummies
Evidence of Trematode Infection in Korean Mummies
Parasitological Infection from the Joseon Period to the Twenty-First Century
Ancient Parasite Species Rarely Discovered in Korean Mummies
Ancient DNA Analyses
Other East Asian Mummies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
22 Analysis of Mummy Digestive Tract Contents with Examples of Relevance to Diet, Health, and Hospice
Introduction
Diet and Environment as Components of Pathoecology
Recovering Coprolites and Sectioning Intestines
Analyzing Coprolite Residues
Reporting Results
Comparing Coprolites from Mummies and Domestic Contexts
Case Studies of Hospice Revealed by Mummy Analysis
Analysis Illustrated - The Ventana Cave Mummy
Dan Canyon Burial: Focus on Wild Grain
The Skiles Mummy: A Debilitated Hunter-Gatherer
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
23 Mummy Taphonomy and Arthropod Associates of Decay
Introduction
Mite Affiliations with Mummies in Forensic Contexts
Mite Affiliations with Mummies in Archaeological Contexts
Current Research
Preliminary Findings
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
24 Ancient Parasites Seen in the Archaeology and Medical Contexts in the Han Dynasty, China
Introduction
Backgrounds of the Han Dynasty (202 BCE to CE 220)
Parasites in the Han Dynasty
Roundworm (Ascaris lumbricoides)
Tapeworm (Taenia sp.)
Pinworm (Enterobius vermicularis)
Whipworm (Trichuris trichiura)
Flukes in the Han Dynasty: Oriental Schistosomiasis (Schistosoma japonicum) and Chinese Liver Fluke (Clonorchis sinensis)
Discussion
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
25 Dietary Stress in Combat: Coprolite Analysis of a Korean War Marine Killed in Action
Introduction
Materials and Methods
Results
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
26 Mummies and Skeletonized Individuals to Reveal the Relationship of Parasitism, Social Complexity, and Subsistence Strategy ...
Introduction
The Siberian Peoples
The Joseon-Korean Mummies
The Chinese Mummies
Conclusion: Old World Evidence Supporting Reinhard and Araujo´s Hypothesis
Cross-References
References
Part V: Egyptian Mummies
27 Mummified Human Remains from Ancient Egypt and Nubia: An Overview and New Insights from the British Museum Collection
Introduction
Mummification in Ancient Egypt
The Significance of Mummification: Becoming an Osiris
Texts and Other Indirect Insights into Mummification
The Mummy of Ameniryirt: Identity, Context, and an Overview of Mummification in Ancient Egypt
The Importance of Context: Who Was Ameniryirt?
The Mummy of Ameniryirt and an Overview of the Practice of Mummification in Ancient Egypt
Internal Organs, Canopic Jars, and the Four Sons of Horus
The Coffin in Ancient Egypt
New Methods: Toward a More Systematic Approach
New Developments in X-Ray Science and CT Scanning
The Emergence of a New Discipline
CT Scanning Egyptian Mummies: Data Segmentation and 3D Visualizations
The Bioarchaeology of Mummified Human Remains: Toward a More Systematic Approach
Establishing an Age-at-Death
Establishing or Confirming the Biological Sex
The Life and Death of Ameniryirt: A Bioarchaeological Perspective
The Evolution of Mummification from the Predynastic to Medieval Periods, with New Insights from the British Museum Collection
Predynastic Period (c. 5500-3100 BC) and Early Dynastic Period (c. 3100-2686 BC)
Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2181 BC) and First Intermediate Period (c. 2181-2055 BC)
Middle Kingdom (c. 2055-1650 BC)
Second Intermediate Period (c. 1750-1550 BC) and New Kingdom (c. 1550-1069 BC)
Third Intermediate Period (c. 1069-656 BC) and Late Period (664-332 BC)
Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)
Roman Period (30 BC-AD 395)
Late Antique and Medieval Periods (AD 395-1500)
Conclusion: Toward Systematic Methods and Approaches
Cross-References
References
28 Animal Mummies in Ancient Egypt and South America
Introduction
The Different Types of Animal Mummies
Brief Overview of the Study of Animal Mummies
What Animal Mummies Reveal
How to Study Animal Mummies
How Were Animals Mummified
The Socioeconomic Role of Animal Mummies in Egypt
South American Animal Mummies
Conclusion: The Future of Animal Mummy Studies
Cross-References
References
29 Trends in Use of Organic Balms in Egyptian Mummification Revealed Through Biomolecular Analyses
Introduction
Placing Chemical Investigations of Mummy Balm in the Cultural Context of Ancient Egyptian Mummification
Materials and Methods
Mummy Samples
Lipid Extraction and Analysis
Results
Summary of Balm Compositions Analyzed in This Study
Variations in Balm Compositions over Time
Preparation of Balms and Specific Recipes
Variation on Balm Composition with the Age of the Individual
Variations in Balm Composition with the Gender of the Individual
Variation in Balm Composition with Location on the Body
Variation of the Chemical Composition with Material Type
Discussion
Conclusions
References
Part VI: Mummies in Europe
30 Life and Diseases of the Neolithic Glacier Mummy ``Ötzi´´
Introduction
Detection of the Body
Dating of the Mummy
Individual Age
Anthropological Examination, Body Size, and Stature
Type of Mummification
Provenance and Genetic Origin of the Iceman
Nutrition of the Iceman
Evidence for Physical Activities
Infectious Diseases and Diseases of Internal Organs
The Intestines
Pulmonary Pathology
Vascular Pathology
Non-traumatic Skeletal Pathology
Diseases of the Teeth and the Oral Cavity
Abnormalities of Hair
Systemic Infectious Disease
Potential Therapeutic Treatment
Sequelae of Traumatic Injuries
Old Healed Trauma
Trauma Acquired Several Days Before His Death
The Mortal Arrow Shot
Further Possible Perimortal Lesions
Possible Scenarios of the Iceman´s Life and Death
The Iceman´s Life
Ötzi´s Final Days - The Scenario of His Death
Final Remarks
References
31 Mummies in Crypts and Catacombs
Introduction
What Is a Mummy?
Spontaneously Mummified Corpses: Some Biological Considerations
Anthropogenic Mummification of Human Corpses
Some Historic Aspects of Mummification in Post-antique History: The Origin of Church and Crypt Mummies in Mediaeval to Modern ...
Mummies in Crypts and Catacombs
Italy
Germany
Austria
The Czech Republic
Hungary
Lithuania
Other Countries
Conclusions and Outlook
References
32 The Vc Mummy Project: Investigation of 265 Eighteenth-Century Mummified Remains from the TB Pandemic Era
Introduction - How Our Story Began
History of Vc
The Dominican Church of Vc
Under the Dominican Church
The Crypt
Loretum
Ossuary
Crypt Entrance I
Crypt Entrance II
Vent Holes
The Discovery of the Crypt
The Mummification Mechanism
Church and Civic Archives - Life Stories of Individuals and Families of Special Interest
Antónia Tauber
Annamaria Beer - The 95-Year-Old with Past Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis in the Hausmann Family and Beyond
Evidence of Colon or Bowel Cancer
A Case of Renal (Kidney) Stone
A Case of Gout
Two Young Men with Developmental Abnormalities
Death of a Mother and Child (Postmortem Caesarean Section)
The Director and Teacher at the Institute for the Deaf
Molecular Analysis for Tuberculosis
Extent of Tuberculosis Infection
Discussion
References
33 Bog Bodies
Introduction
Background
Bog Bodies - Context
Geographic Distribution
Historical and Cultural Contexts
Potential Intents
Scientific Perspectives
Defining a Peat Bog
Characteristics of Peat Bogs Impacting Body Preservation
Common Characteristics of Bog Bodies
Analytical Challenges in Bog Body Research
The Case of the Weerdinge Couple
Preservation Challenges
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
34 Bog Bodies and Natural Mummification of Siberia
Introduction
Archaeological Information
Historical Considerations
Revisiting the Cossack Mummy
Radiocarbon Dating
CT Radiography
Dental Prosthesis in 3D Model
Histology
Stable Isotope Analysis
Mitochondrial DNA Analysis
A Bog Mummy of West Siberia
Preservation Status of Cossack Mummy
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
35 Vladimir Il´ič Lenin
Introduction
Lenin´s Official Autopsy Report
External Examination
Internal Examination
Lenin´s Diseases During Lifetime
Final Course of Lenin´s Malady
The Official Version of Lenin´s Cause of Death
The Fate of Lenin´s Brain
The Funeral That Never Took Place
The Immortalization of the Leader: A ``Living Sculpture´´
The Embodiment of the Leader
Embalmers of the Communist Leaders
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
36 Ancient Greece and Mummies: The Primacy of the Soul over the Body
Introduction
Did Ancient Greeks Know About the Egyptian Practice of Embalming Cadavers?
What Was the Ancient Greek Perception of Egyptian Mummies?
Where There Ever Ancient Greek Mummies?
Conclusion
References
37 Guanche Mummies
Introduction
Problems in the Scientific Study of Mummified Remains
Problems in the Biological Study
Pseudopathology
Problems in the Cultural Study
Tenerife and the Canary Islands
A History of the Guanche Mummies
Spoliation of Guanche Mummies
Spain
France
Germany
England (United Kingdom)
Russia
The Netherlands
Argentina
Canada
The United States
Repatriation of Guanche Mummies
Repatriation of Two Guanche Mummies from Necochea (Province of Buenos Aires, Argentina)
Repatriation of Three Guanche Mummies from Museum of Medical-Forensic Anthropology, Paleopathology, and Criminalistics ``Rever...
Research on Guanche Mummies: CRONOS AND Athanatos Projects
CRONOS
Athanatos
Guanche Types of Burial
Types of Mummification Among the Guanches
Natural or Natural-Intentional Mummification
Anthropogenic Mummification
Comparative Studies Between Mummified and Skeletal Populations
Demography
Diet
Markers of Physical Activity
Metabolic Stress Markers and Pathology
Dental Pathology
Skeletal Pathology
Soft Tissue Pathology
Paleoparasitology
Conclusions
References
38 Embalming in France (from Twelfth to Nineteenth Century): Principle and Development of Techniques
Introduction
The Origin of Embalming in France
Embalming Techniques: Modus Operandi
Embalming Techniques from the Sixth to the Fifteenth Century
Agnès Sorel (1450)
King Louis XI and Charlotte de Savoie (1483)
Embalming Techniques from the Sixteenth to Nineteenth Century
King Henri IV of France (1610)
Louis XIII of France (1643) and Louis XIV of France (1715)
Louis XVIII of France (1824)
Conclusions or Perspectives
References
Part VII: Mummies in South America and Pacific Region
39 South American Mummies
Introduction
Bioarchaeological Review
Environmental Studies
Pharmacological Studies
Chronic and Metabolic Diseases
Regional Trends
Argentina
Brazil
Chile
Peru
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
40 Brazilian Mummies
Introduction
Archaeological Site Lapa Do Boquete: Peruaçu Valley
Church of Santo Antonio Aparecido: Municipality of Itacambira
Archaeological Site Gruta Do Gentio II: Municipality of Unaí
Archaeological Site Caverna da Babilônia: Municipality of Goian
Conclusion
References
41 Fire Mummies of the Kabayan Region of Benguet Province, Luzon, the Philippines
Introduction
Context and Culture
Symbols of Status -The Practice of Tattooing as Seen on Fire Mummies
Headhunting
Cultural Aspects of Mummification Practice
When It All Began
When It All Ended
Funerary Rituals
Cave Burials and Coffins
Death Rituals
Scientific Perspectives
Mummification Procedure
Mummification Science
The Fire Mummies in Today´s Culture
Current Death Ritual Practices
Current Attitudes Toward the Mummified Ancestors
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
42 Smoked Bodies of Papua New Guinea
Introduction
Context and Culture
Smoked Body Mummification - Cultural Aspects
When the Smoked Body Method Began
When the Smoked Body Method Ended
Purposes - Past and Present
Burial and Funerary Practices
The Warrior Culture of the Anga
Scientific Perspective
Smoked Body Mummification Procedure
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Step 5
Smoked Body Science - Impact of Procedural Steps on Mummification
The Smoking Hut
Elimination of Body Fluids
Impact of Smoke and Fire Within Smoking Hut
Physical Barrier
Smoked Body Mummification Limiting Factors
Taphonomic Change/Impact on Smoked Bodies
Miroclimates in the Burial Cliff Galleries
Ethnographic Aspects and Current Thinking Among the Anga
Current Thought Regarding the Smoked Bodies
Inter-village Politics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Part VIII: Mummies in Asia
43 Mummies in Siberia
Introduction
Frozen Mummies
Mummies of Ukok Plateau
Mummies of Oglakhta (Tashtyk Culture)
Yakut Frozen Bodies Found in East Siberia
West Siberian Arctic Graves
Preservation of Siberian Mummies
Scientific Analyses of Siberian Mummies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
44 Archaeological Findings of the Tarim Basin Graves and Mummies
Introduction
The Xiaohe Cemetery
Investigations by Chinese Archeologists Since 1999
Otani Collection in Seoul
Cultural Remains of the Xiaohe Cemetery in NMK
History of the Investigation of the Tarim Basin Graves and Cemeteries
People from the West
Research Updates on the Identity of Tarim Basin Mummies
The Mummies in Xinjiang Museum
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
45 Joseon Dynasty Mummies of Korea
Introduction
How Could the Korean Mummies Be Formed?
Emergence of the Joseon Graves in History
Preservation Status and Histology
Ancient DNA Analysis
Successful Mummy Researches of Historians
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
46 Mummies in China: Mawangdui and Other Related Mummies
Introduction
Mummies of the Warring States and Western Han Periods
The Excavation of Mawangdui Tomb No. 1
Biomedical Investigation of Mawangdui Mummy
The Excavations on Mawangdui Tomb No. 2 and Tomb No. 3
The Excavation of Phoenix Hill Tomb No. 168
The Female Mummy of the Warring States Period
The Excavation of Double Dragons Tomb No. M1
Mummification in the Warring States and Han Period Tombs
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
47 Mummies in Japan
Introduction
Mummies of Buddhist Monks
Fujiwara Mummies
Japanese Mummies in East Asian History
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
48 Mummies of Song-Ming Dynasty in China
Introduction
History of Song and Ming Dynasties
Chinese and Korean Mummies
The Origin of Korean Graves
The Structure of Song and Ming Dynasty Graves
Scientific Studies of Song-Ming Period Mummies
Mummification Process
Comparison with Mawangdui Mummies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Part IX: Cultural Aspects of Mummy Studies
49 Fake and Alien Mummies
Introduction
Historical Background
Extraterrestrial Life and Forged Remains
Ata, the Atacama Alien
Nazca Alien Mummies
Scientists and the Alien Mummies
Discussion
Conclusions and Recommendations
Cross-References
References
50 Mummy Clothing Found in East Asia
Introduction
Mummies and Clothing
A Mummy Bundle
Interdisciplinary Collaboration
Mummy´s Teeth
An Example of Mummy Clothing Research in South Korea
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Index