The Handbook of Crisis Communication

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Acknowledgments
Notes on Contributors
Orientation to the Second Edition
PART I Explication of Methods
Chapter 1 Crisis Communication and Computational Methods
Introduction
The Basis of Computational Communication Science
Deductive Methods
Inductive Methods
Advanced Techniques
Distributed Word Embeddings
Deep Learning Based Text Classification
Machine Vision
Advanced Techniques and Crisis Communication
Misinformation
Concluding Remarks
Note
References
Chapter 2 Extending Experimental Crisis Communication Research: Reflections and Recommendations
Introduction
Theoretical Approaches to Experimental Crisis Research
Manipulating Independent Variables in Crisis Work
Measuring Dependent Variables in Experimental Crisis Research
Recommendations for Enhancing Experimental Crisis Research
References
Chapter 3 Crisis Response Effectiveness: Methodological Considerations for Advancement of Empirical Research about Response Impact
Background on the Study of Crisis Management
Situational Crisis Communication Theory
Implications of the Unidimensionality of Crisis Communication Responses in SCCT
Enhancing Experimental Research Using SCCT
Identification of Dependent Variables
Crisis Response Messages as Unique Categorical Strategies
Crisis Communication Messages
Better Data Reporting
Continuing to Move Forward While Looking Back
Conclusion
References
Chapter 4 Tackling the Information Overload: Using Automated Content Analysis for Crisis Communication Research
Introduction
Applied Methods
Fields of Application
Organizational Crises
Public Health Crises
Political Crises
Disasters
Limitations of Automated Content Analysis
Missing Validity
Missing Analytical Depth
Complementing Computational Methods with Manual Content Analysis
Conclusion
References
PART II Theory Refinement and Development
Chapter 5 A Meta-Theoretical Orientation to Crisis Communication
Introduction
Meta-Theory
Meta-Analysis
Method
Results
A Meta-Theory of Crisis
Limitations
Conclusion
References
Chapter 6 Corporate Apologia as Crisis Communication
Introduction
Definitional Matters
Order, Guilt, and Restoration
Definition
Social Legitimation Crisis
Kategoria
Contexts
Response
Substantive and Stylistic Matters
Definitional Message Strategies
Atonement
Narrative Theory
Secular Remediation Rituals
Liability
Research Matters
An Expansive Approach to Message Strategies
Increasing Appreciation of the Role of Narratives
More International Cases
Role of Social Media
Performative Dimensions
Time as Structural Rather than Temporal
Ethical Considerations
Conclusion
References
Chapter 7 The Benefits and Pitfalls of Stealing Thunder
Introduction
The Effectiveness of Self-Disclosure
Contributions to Crisis Communication Theory
Stealing Thunder as an Easy Fix?
The Way Ahead
Crisis Disclosure Strategies
Timing and Frequency of Crisis Communication
Lifting Restraints
Conclusion
References
Chapter 8 Contingent Organization–Public Relationships and their Application in Organizational Crises
Introduction
COPR: A Contingent Perspective of Relationships Theoretical Origins of COPR
Assumptions of COPR
Operationalization of COPR
Implementing COPR in Crisis Management
An AI Solution for COPR
Input Data in Crises
Supervised Machine Learning
Output Decision
Concerns of Using an AI Solution
Conclusion
References
Chapter 9 Revisiting the Discourse of Renewal Theory: Clarifications, Extensions, Interdisciplinary Opportunities
Introduction
Foundational Framework
Learning from Failure
Ethical Communication
Prospective Versus Retrospective Vision
Effective Rhetoric
Renewal as a Process
The Interaction of Renewal and Resilience
Renewal and Resilience
Future Directions
Conclusion
References
Chapter 10 Title IX in the Age of #MeToo: The Limits of Discourse of Renewal on Crisis Communication
Introduction
Organizational Structures in Academe Sustaining Sexual Harassment
Task and Organizational Structure
Isolation of Targets
Organizational Power Relationships
Discourse of Renewal
Case Study: Baylor University
Act I: The Cover-Up
Act II: Where Was Title IX?
Act III: Discourse of Renewal
Rethinking Discourse of Renewal
Conclusion
References
Chapter 11 Social-Mediated Crisis Communication Research: How Information Generation, Consumption, and Transmission Influence Communication Processes and Outcomes
A Decade of Social-Mediated Crisis Communication Research
Crisis Information Generation
Publics’ Perspectives
Organizations’ Perspectives
Crisis Information Consumption
Publics’ Perspectives
Organizations’ Perspectives
Crisis Information Transmission
Publics’ Perspectives
Organizations’ Perspectives
Discussion
Establishing Influence
Content Transmission by Followers and Inactives
Dark Side of Social Media and Crisis Communication
Message Testing
Deeper Dive into Social Media Channels
Conclusion
References
Chapter 12 Rhetorical Arena Theory: Revisited and Expanded
Introduction
Introducing Rhetorical Arena Theory
RAT Applies to All Types of Crises
Rhetorical Arena and its Sub-Arenas
The Concept of Sub-Arena
Sub-Arena Studies
Revisiting the Concept of Sub-Arena
Arena and Sub-Arenas in the Telenor Complaints Crisis on Facebook in 2012
A Look to the Future: Theory Building and Methodological Challenges of RAT
References
Chapter 13 Antifragile Paracrisis Communication: Managing Paracrises as Crisis Risks and Potential Opportunities
Introduction
Managing Paracrises to Mitigate Crisis Risks
An Antifragility Approach to Paracrisis Communication Management
Discourse of Renewal
Antifragility and Strategies to Attain Antifragility
Toward Antifragile Paracrisis Communication Practices
Future Research Suggestions
Conclusion
References
Chapter 14 Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT): Refining and Clarifying a Cognitive-Based Theory of Crisis Communication
Introduction
Overview of SCCT Basics
Crisis Types
Contextual Modifiers
Crisis Interventions
SCCT and Researchers: Common Errors when Applying SCCT
Denial and Crises Do Not Mix
Begin with the Ethical Base Response
Crisis Responsibility Is more Akin to Accountability than Blame
Measure Account Acceptance
Why Theoretical Misrepresentation Is Problematic
SCCT and Professionals: Evidence-Based Crisis Communication
Future Research Directions
Crisis Interventions
Crisis Outcomes
Assessing Crisis Situations
Conclusion
References
PART III New Directions
PART III A Political Crises
15 Crisis Communication in Authoritarian Systems and Digital Innovation: How Do Autocracies Resolve the Dictator’s Dilemma in Crisis Situations?
Introduction
The Politics of Disasters in Democratic and Authoritarian Systems: The Impact on Crisis Communication
Crisis Communication in a Digital Environment: The Dictator’s Dilemma
Conceptual Framework: Crisis Communication Through Mediational Lenses
Crisis Communication and Digital Innovation in Russia: From the Wildfires of 2010 to COVID-19
Conclusion
References
16 Political Crisis or Political Cartoon: Which Comes First?
COVID-19 in the United States
Political Corruption and the Presidency in Brazil, 2010–2016
Charlie Hebdo, Paris, France, 2015
Conclusion
References
17 US Presidents and Crisis Communication
Introduction
Presidents and Crisis
Persuasive Constraints and Advantages of the Presidential Office
The Tangible and Symbolic Resources of the Presidency
The Advantages and Challenges of a Changing Media Environment
Greater Presidential Power and Resources with Respect to Foreign, as Opposed to Domestic Crises
Americans’ Dwindling Levels of Knowledge about Civics and History
Essential Elements of Wise Presidential Crisis Promotion and/or Management
Notes
References
PART III B Public Health Crises
18 Integrating Strategy and Dosage: A New Conceptual Formula for Overcoming Unintended Effects in Public Health Crisis Communication (PHCC)
Introduction
Public Health Crisis and Public Health Crisis Communication
Public Health Crises
Public Health Crisis Communication: Opportunities and Challenges
Public Health Crisis Communication as a Neutralization Process: A Chemical Analogy
PHC and PHC Strength
Intended and Unintended Effects of PHCC
PHCC Strategy and Dosage: Strategizing the Concentration of “Base Solution”
PHCC “Solute”: Message Strategy
Emotional Appeal
Rational Appeal
PHCC “Solvent”: Source and Channel
Source
Channel
PHCC Dosage: Volume of “Base Solution”
Key Elements of Dosage: Mere Exposure and Perceived Engagement
Mere Exposure
Perceived Engagement
Conclusion
Note
References
PART III C Natural Disasters
19 Mitigating Crises: Analyzing, Planning, Organizing, Mobilizing, and Communicating to Address Natural Disasters
Introduction
Strategic Processes of Natural Disaster Mitigation
Mitigation Challenges as Foresight
Theoretical Foundations
Narrative
Efficacy
Behavioral Intention as Reasoned Action
Contexts, Protocols, and Conclusions
References
20 Rescue Communication: Official and Volunteer Groups’ Use of Mobile and Social Media During Disasters that Become Crises
Introduction
The Rise in Public Participation in Disaster/Crisis Helping
Role of Mobile and Social Media in Rescue Communication
Method
Official Emergency Response
The Unofficial Response and Communication Practices
Findings and Discussion
Conceptualizing Rescue Communication Across Groups
Structural Communication Differences
Linking Crisis Disaster Communication Theories to Rescue Communication
Future Directions for Research
References
21 Communicating Disaster Preparedness: Combining Individual- and Community-Level Perspectives to Achieve more Lasting Resilience
Introduction
Natural Disasters: Where Does Preparedness Fit?
Conceptualizing Preparedness
Communicative Approaches to Disaster Preparedness
Individual Approaches
Organizational Approaches
Future Frameworks to Study Communicative Disaster Preparations
Resilience
Invoking Resilience Before Natural Disasters
Approaches Working Together: Model Development
Conclusion
References
22 A Community Engagement Approach to Natural Hazard Communication
Introduction
Preparedness Phase in Emergency Management
Preparedness Conceptualized
Community Engagement in Emergency Management
Evidence-Based Community Engagement Frameworks
Mapping Community Engagement for Preparedness in Australia
A Framework for Community Engagement in Emergency Management
Applying the Principles to Create Shared Responsibility
Conclusions
References
PART III D Organizational Crises
23 Odwalla: The “Golden Standard” of Crisis Management?
Introduction
Literature Review
Discourse of Renewal
Criteria and Strategies of Effective Discourse of Renewal
Crisis Type
Stakeholder Relationships
Corrective Action and Change
Public vs. Private Organizations
Provisional Narrative
Focus on Rebuilding
Communicate Optimism
Ability of Leadership to Frame Crisis
Discourse of Renewal: Implications from Odwalla
Brand Communities
Brand Revival and the Blue Bell Case
Origins Story
Transparency as Strategy
Commitment to Brand Community
Ethical Use of Corrective Action
Future Directions
References
24 The Impact of Language Abstraction on the Effectiveness of Information Strategies During a Product-Harm Crisis
Introduction
Literature Review
The Importance of Crisis Information
Language Abstraction in Crisis Communication
The Influence of the Type of Crisis Information
Method
Design and Stimuli
Participants and Procedure
Measures
Results
Manipulation Checks
Tests of Hypotheses
Discussion
Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research
References
25 From Managing Emotion to Trauma-Informed Management: A New Direction in Crisis Communication
Introduction
Crisis Communication and Emotion
SCCT and Emotion
ICM and Emotion
Emotion–Cognition Dual-Factor Model
Limitations of Current Research
Employees and Internal Crisis Communication
Understanding Trauma
What Is Being Trauma-Informed?
Trauma-Informed Management for Crisis Communication: A Way Forward
Physical and Emotional Safety
Physical Safety
Emotional Safety
Cultural Responsivity, Empowerment, Peer Support, and Trust
Cultural Responsivity
Voice, Choice, Empowerment
Peer Support and Relationships
Trust and Transparency
Collaboration
Future Research Directions for Trauma-Informed Management for Crisis Communication
Emotional Well-Being
Historical Trauma and Cultural Responsivity
Employee–Employee Peer Support
Empowerment
Conclusion
References
26 “Say It Like You Mean It”: An Exploration of How Members of the Public Perceive Audiovisual Crisis Responses
Introduction
Literature Review
What Elements Shape the Public Perception of a Crisis Response?
Mechanisms Underlying the Impact of Crisis Communication
Method
Participants
Procedure
Data Analysis
Findings
Situational Factors
The Content of Crisis Communication
Discussion
Limitations and Further Research
Note
References
27 Strategic Improvisation in Crisis Communication
The Need for Innovative Thinking
Crisis as an Opportunity
Crises Threaten the Normal Order
The Paradox of Crises
Centralization, Decentralization, and Trust
Chaos
Loosely Coupled Systems
The Art of Improvisation
Say Yes to the Mess
Requisite Variety
Here Comes the Coworkers
Strategic Improvisation in Crisis Communication
References
28 Visual Media in Crisis Response: How Crisis Responders and Influencers Use Visual Media in the Digital Age in Crisis Response
Introduction
Evolving Social Media and Visual Media
Visual Framing
Organizational Visual Framing in Crisis Communication
Case Studies: Visual Media in Crisis
Visual Media as Crisis Mediator: Orlando City Soccer Club as Crisis Buffer
Visual Media as Crisis Victim: Blue Bell Ice Cream Licking
Visual Media as Crisis Instigation: United Airlines Passenger Dragging
Discussion: Visual Media in Crisis
Conclusion and Future Direction
References
29 Scansis: Changing the Landscape of Crisis Communication Research and Practice
Introduction
Defining Scandals
Understanding Moral Outrage
Scansis: When a Crisis Is Also a Scandal
SCCT and Scansis
The Future of Scandalogy in Crisis Communication
References
30 Improving Crisis Communication Through Instructional Design
Introduction
Background
Learning at the Core
Instructional Design Theory
Design
Development
Implementation
Evaluation
Case Application of ID
Background of COVID-19
Applying ID Principles
Considerations
References
31 Prepare and Manage anEnvironmental Crisis
Introduction
The Different Types of Crises and Their Consequences
An Inventory of Potential Environmental Crises
Simulation of Consequences
The Crisis Unit
Opinion and the Media: the Process at Work
Media: Emotion, Image, and Storytelling
The Emotive Phase
The Image
Telling the Story
Mechanisms at Play
The Company Is Guilty
The Company Is Suspected of Concealment
Public Authorities are Not Trusted
A Changing Landscape of Intermediaries
Preparing Communications
Methods of Effective Environmental Crisis Communication
React
Assume
Choose the Right Spokesperson
Select Allies
Provable Statements
Be Understood
Note
References
32 Exploring Crisis History’s Impacts: How Organizations’ Previous Crises Impact Current Crisis Perceptions
Introduction
Crisis History’s Origin
Extant Crisis History Literature
The Crisis History Framework
Proximity
Valence
Stability
Crisis Type
Visibility
Influential Perspectives
Crisis History and Organizational Learning
Crisis History Case Illustration: Johnson & Johnson
Johnson & Johnson’s 1982 Tylenol Tampering Crisis
Crisis History Learning for J&J
Conclusion
References
33 Three Decades of Sport-Related Crisis Communication: A Trends Study of the Emergence and Growth of a Crisis Communication Subfield
Introduction
What is Crisis, Crisis Communication, and Paracrisis?
Sports, Crisis, and the Rhetorical Arena
The Emergence of the Subfield of Sport Crisis Communication
Trends in Sport-Related Crisis Communication Research over the Past 30 Years
Who
Researchers
What
Transgressions
Artifacts Researched
Remediation Strategies
Where
When
How
Methods
Theory
Why
Purpose
Field/Subfield
Funding
Discussion
Operational Crisis or Paracrisis?
Levels of Sport and Crisis Attribution
Stakeholder Perceptions, Reputation, and the Rhetorical Arena
Limitations of This Research
Conclusion
Data|Descriptive Tables
References
34 Climate Crisis Communication in Global News Videos: A Multimodal Discourse Approach to Multifaceted Knowledge and Reaction Management
Introduction
Conceptual Framework
A Multimodal Turn in Crisis Communication Research
Sensemaking and Sensegiving from a Multimodal Perspective
Research Design
Data Collection
Analytical Steps
Results
Content Enrichment and Appeal Bolstering Through Visual Detailing
Content Enrichment and Appeal Bolstering Through Visual Contrasting
Content Enrichment and Appeal Bolstering Through Visual Extending
Content Anchoring Through Visual Association
Discussion and Conclusion
References
PART IV Application to Practice
Chapter 35 Advancing Crisis Communication Effectiveness: Integrating Crisis Scholarship with Practice
Introduction
Research on Collaboration
The Value of Collaboration
Ways to Collaborate
University Research Groups
Think Tanks and Conferences
Best Practices, Gap Studies, and Collaboratively Produced Resources
Conclusion and Summary
References
Appendix A
Chapter 36 How Can Crisis Communication Become an Evidence-Based Practice?
Introduction
Evidence-Based Management
Crisis Communication’s Scientific Body of Knowledge
Emerging Fields of Inquiry
Adjacent Fields of Study
Putting Evidence into Practice
References
Chapter 37 Improving Crisis Communication: When Good Advice Becomes Impractical
Introduction
A Definition of Crisis
How Organizations are Advised: An Overview of Recommendations for Crisis Decision-Making and Crisis Communication
Suggested Guideline 1: Make Balanced Crisis Decisions
Suggested Guideline 2: Address the Information Shortage Quickly
Suggested Guideline 3: Reduce Negative Public Opinion
The Science of Public Apology: The Power of Internal and Controllable Attribution
What if a Crisis Is External and Uncontrollable?
The Gap Between Theory and Practice: The Neuroscience Behind the Reasons Why Decision-Makers Do Not Implement Sound Advice
What We Can and Cannot Do: Best Practices for Crisis Communication That Actually Work in Practice
Evolving Organizational Systems and Regular Employee Training
The Michigan Model
Requirement for and Implementation of Regular Trainings
Leadership Culture: One That Takes Crisis Communication Seriously and Does It Right
Michael McCain’s Crisis Leadership
A Leader’s Self-Reflection
Conclusion
References
Chapter 38 Building a Career from Crisis Responder to Crisis Communicator: A Journey of Learning and Growth Through Canada’s Costliest Natural Disasters and Largest Peacetime Evacuations
Introduction
#YYCFlood 2013
#YMMFire 2016
Crisis and Risk Communication Theories
References
Postscript
Index
EULA