The Fig: Botany, Production and Uses

Cover
The Fig Botany, Production and Uses
Copyright
Contents
Contributors
About the Editors
Preface
1 History, Archaeology and Culture
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Etymology
1.3 Domestication, Dispersal and Archaeological Evidence of the Fig
1.4 Fig in Ancient Egypt
1.5 At the Beginnings of Civilization: The Fig in Neolithic Levant and East Mediterranean
1.6 The Role of the Phoenicians: Figs in Greece and West Mediterranean in the Iron Age
1.7 The Fig in Roman Culture
1.8 The Fig Tree in the Holy Books
Quran (Koran)
Notes
References
2 Taxonomy, Botany and Physiology
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Origin, Distribution and Habitat
2.3 Taxonomy and Systematics
Phylogeny
Distinguishing features of F. carica
2.4 Cytology
2.5 Horticultural Classification
Domesticated fig or female fig
Caprifig or male fig
2.6 Germplasm collection and conservation
2.7 Botany
Tree habit
Root system
Stem wood and bark
Buds
Leaves
Leaf morphology
Leaf anatomy
Latex cells
Inflorescence
Flowers
Pollen and germination
Pollinator and pollination
Caprification and impacts on fruit set
Seed morphology and germination
Fruit
Parthenocarpy
2.8 Phenology and reproductive Biology
Phenology
Phenology of F. carica in naturally growing conditions
Syconium development in caprifig trees
Syconium development in female fig trees
Phenology of Common-type figs
Reproductive biology
2.9 Growth and Reproductive Physiology
Floral induction and fruit growth
Fruit maturation and postharvest physiology
Conclusion
References
3 Production and Growing Regions
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Fig in the Northern Hemisphere
Turkey
Egypt
Morocco
Iran
Algeria
Spain
Syrian Arab Republic
United States
Tunisia
Afghanistan
Albania
Greece
China
India
Japan
Azerbaijan
Italy
Libya
Mexico
Portugal
3.3 The Fig in the Southern Hemisphere
Brazil
Peru
Colombia
South Africa
Argentina
Chile
Australia
References
4 Biodiversity, Germplasm Resources and Breeding Methods
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Biodiversity and Germplasm Resources
4.3 Reproductive Biology of Ficus carica
4.4 Breeding History
4.5 Breeding Programmes
Breeding criteria
Criteria for rootstock improvement
Characters related to the tree
4.6 Breeding Techniques
Cross-breeding
Interspecific hybridization
Mutation breeding
Ploidy manipulation
Marker-assisted selection (MAS)
Genomic selection
Genetics and genomics
Genetic transformation
Genome editing
4.7 Future Perspectives
References
5 World Fig Cultivars
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Fig Types
5.3 Fig Cultivars in the Northern Hemisphere
Turkey
Egypt
Morocco
Algeria
Iran
Syria
Spain
United States of America
Tunisia
Albania
India
China
Greece
Portugal
Japan
Italy
Mexico
France
5.4 Fig Cultivars in the Southern Hemisphere
Brazil
Peru
South Africa
Argentina
Chile
Australia
5.5 Characteristics of Important Fig Cultivars
‘Sarilop’; syns. ‘Lob Injir’ or ‘Ingir’, ‘Erbeyli’, ‘Calimyrna’ and ‘Aidin’
‘Bursa Siyahi’, ‘Bursa Black’
‘Beyaz Orak’
‘El Messari’
‘Lambdar Labiadh’ and ‘Lambdar Lakhal’
‘El Koté’
‘Azendjar’
‘Thaâmriwt’
‘Bakkor Biadh’ (syns. ‘Amazigh’ and ‘Abakour Amellal’)
‘Bakkor Khal’
‘Sabz’
‘Shah Anjir’
‘Siah’
‘Meshki’
‘Al-Osaili’
‘Tamouzi’
‘Khudeiri’
‘Calabacita’
‘Albac’ (syns.: ‘Colar’, ‘Cuello Dama Negro’, ‘Mission’, ‘Franciscana’)
‘Cuello Dama Blanco’ (syns.: ‘Kadota’, ‘Dottato’, ‘Ottato’)
‘Mission’ (syns. ‘Black Mission’, ‘California Black’, ‘Franciscana’ and ‘Negra’)
‘Brown Turkey’
‘Sierra’
‘King’ (‘Desert King’)
‘Excel’
‘Panachee’ (Tiger Fig)
‘Zidi’
‘Bouholi’
‘Soltani’
‘Bither Abiadh’ and ‘Bither Akhal’
‘Bayoudhi’
‘Kraps i ZI’
‘Shqau’
‘Rotllar’
‘Kallamata’
‘Poona’
‘Bojihong’
‘Qingpi’
‘Xinjiang Huang’
‘Kalamon’
‘Kymis’
‘Vasilika Mellisi’
‘Vasilika Mavra’
‘Masui Dauphine’
‘Houraishi’
‘Brunswick’
‘Toyomitsuhime’
‘Dottato’ (‘Kadota’)
‘Petrelli’ (S. Giovanni, S. Antonio, Columbro)
‘Tauro’ (Minghtaur, Domenico Tauro)
‘Violette de Solliès’ (‘Parisienne’, ‘Bourjasotte Noire’, ‘Barnisotte’)
‘Col de Dame Noire’ (‘Coll de Senyora Negra’, ‘Cuello de Dama Negra’, ‘Figues des Dames’, ‘Pera’, ‘Fraga’)
‘Grise de Saint-Jean’ (‘Cotignane’, ‘Observantine’, ‘Grisette’, ‘Cordelière’, ‘Grisette de Montpellier’, ‘Coucourelle grise’, ‘Célestine’, ‘Capoutchin’ and ‘Mestissegrise’)
‘Ronde de Bordeaux’
‘Roxo-de-Valinhos’
‘Negrito’
‘Pingo de Mel’
‘Parisian’ or ‘Evita’ (‘Violette de Solliès’, ‘Parisienne’, ‘Bourjasotte Noir’, ‘Barnisotte Noir’, ‘Brogiotto Nero’, ‘Negro Largo’)
‘Tangier’
‘Cosmic’
‘Spen’
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
6 Propagation Techniques and Nursery Management
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Propagation Techniques
Seedlings
Cutting
Hardwood cutting
Bud or tip cuttings
Apical cuttings in lopping management
Herbaceous (softwood) cutting
Semi-hardwood cutting
Aerial root-cutting
Rooting induction with artificial auxins
Layering
Air layering
Stem layering
Grafting and budding
Budding
Softwood grafting
Cutting-grafting
Tissue culture
Meristem culture
Somatic embryogenesis
Encapsulation of explants
6.3 Producing Rootstocks From Seeds
Seed extraction
Seed dormancy
Seed germination
Seedling propagation
Transplanting
Grafting seedlings
6.4 Nursery Management
Production of nursery trees by cuttings
Soilless cultivation
6.5 Rootstock
Graft compatibility of wild Ficus species
Rootstocks for drought stress
Rootstocks with resistance to Ceratocystis canker
Rootstocks for root-knot nematode and soil sickness
6.6 Future Perspectives
References
7 Environmental Requirements and Site Selection
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Temperature
Growing season temperatures
Dormant season temperatures
Chilling requirement
7.3 Light
7.4 Topography and Elevation
7.5 Water Availability and Quality
7.5 Wind
7.6 Rain and humidity
7.7 Soil Properties
Salinity
7.8 Greenhouse and High-tunnel Production
Location
Topography
Soil
Water availability and quality
Greenhouse factors
Economic factors
Conclusions
References
8 Orchard Establishment and Management
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Site Selection
8.3 Cultivar and Rootstock Selection
Rootstocks
8.4 Orchard Design
High-density fig orchards
8.5 Land Preparation Before ­Planting (Site Preparation)
8.6 Irrigation System Selection and Installation
8.7 Planting and Young Tree Care
High-density precision orchard planting
Young tree training
Mature tree pruning
Spring tipping to advance maturity
Pruning caprifig trees
Rejuvenation pruning
Girdling
8.8 Orchard Floor Management
Mulching
Tillage
Irrigation
8.9 Fertilization
8.10 Caprification Management
8.11 Harvesting
Expansion of fruit harvesting season in tropical and subtropical climate (case of Mexico)
Techniques to extend the harvest period
8.12 Fig Cultivation in Japan
Cultivation history and commercial cultivars
Propagation
Establishing the field
Planting
Training and pruning
Irrigation and soil management
Pest control
Weed control
Meteorological damage
Protected fig cultivation in Japan
Heated greenhouse
Unheated greenhouse
Rain-shelter house: pipe frame structure
Site selection and orientation for greenhouses and tunnels
Cultivar and rootstock selection and planting in greenhouses and tunnels
Propagation techniques and nursery management
Irrigation
Pruning and training ‘Masui Dauphine’ (straight-line training)
‘Houraishi’ (open-center training)
Temperature control: unheated greenhouse
Temperature control: heated greenhouse
Light control
Covering time and sprouting management in heated greenhouses
Period before harvest
During the harvesting season
Fertilization and soil management
8.13 Rainfed Orchard Establishment and Management
Rainwater harvesting
Training and pruning rainfed trees
Rejuvenation pruning and thinning
Management of physiological disorders
Sunburn
Fruit splitting
Fruit drop
References
9 Fig Wasps and Pollination
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Pollinator Wasp and Other Organisms Associated with Ficus carica
9.3 Pollination Biology of Wild Common Fig, Ficus carica in its Native Habitat
9.4 Fig Crops and Pollination Biology of Cultivated Common Fig, Ficus carica, in its Native Range
9.5 The History of Fig Cultivation and Pollination
Conclusion
References
10 Soil and Nutritional Requirements
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Nutrition
10.3 Macronutrient
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potassium
Calcium
Magnesium
Sulfur
10.4 Micronutrients
Iron
Zinc
Copper
Manganese
Boron
10.5 Salinity and Sodicity
10.6 Production Practices
Acknowledgements
References
11 Irrigation and Water Requirements
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Irrigating Fig Orchards
11.3 Supplemental Irrigation of Rainfed Orchards
11.4 Effects of Irrigation on Fig Tree Growth and Yield
Root length density
Yield
Fruit quality
Physiological parameters
11.5 Irrigation Water Requirements of Figs
11.6 Selection of Irrigation Method
Irrigation water quality
11.7 Fertigation
References
12 Fungal, Bacterial and Nematode Diseases in Figs
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Gall Diseases
Crown gall
Nectriella stem gall
12.3 Leaf Diseases
Anthracnose
Bacterial leaf spot
Leaf blight
Leaf spot
Rust
12.4 Fruit Diseases
Alternaria rot
Aspergillus mold
Endosepsis
Phytophthora fruit rot
Sclerotium blight
Smut
Soft rot
Sooty mold
Souring
12.5 Limb Diseases
Botrytis limb blight
Branch wilt
Pink limb blight
12.6 Canker Diseases
Bacterial canker
Ceratocystis canker
Diaporthe canker
12.7 Root and Crown Diseases
Armillaria root rot
Phytophthora root rot
Rosellinia root and crown rot
12.8 Nematodes
Plant Resistance.
Soil Solarization.
Sanitation.
Conclusion
References
13 Fig Viruses, Viroids and Phytoplasmas
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Fig Mosaic Virus
13.3 Fig badnavirus 1
13.4 Fig Closterovirids
13.5 Fig Fleck-associated Virus
13.6 Fig Latent Virus 1
13.7 Fig Cryptic Virus
13.8 Viroids
13.9 Phytoplasmas
13.10 Control
References
14 Arthropod Pests of Fig and Their Management
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Lepidoptera
Fig leaf roller, Phycodes radiata Ochsenheimer (Lepidoptera: Brachodidae)
Management
Navel orangeworm, Amyelois transitella (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)
Management
Fig tree skeletonizer moth/Fig leaf roller, Choreutis nemorana (Hübner, 1799) (Lepidoptera: Choreutidae)
Management
Fig tree moth, Ocnerogyia amanda (Staudinger) (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae)
Management
14.3 Coleoptera
Tropical fig borer or red spotted long horned beetle, Batocera rufomaculata DeGeer (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)
Management
Fig tree borer, Phryneta spinator (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)
Driedfruit beetles (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae)
Driedfruit beetle: Carpophilus hemipterus (Linnaeus); Freeman sap beetle: Carpophilus freemani Dobson; Confused sap beetle: Carpophilus mutilatus Erichson
Management
Darkling ground beetle, Blapstinus fuliginosus Casey (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), commonly known as false wireworm
Management
Bark beetle, Hypocryphalus scabricollis (Eichhoff) (Coleoptera: Scolytidae)
Management
Ambrosia beetle, Xyleborus bispinatus Eichhoff (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
Management
Fig bark beetle, Hypoborus ficus (Erichson, 1836) (Coleoptera: Scolytidae)
14.4 Hemiptera
Fig whitefly, Singhiella simplex (Singh) (Hemiptera: Aleurodidae)
Management
Fig psylla, Macrohomotoma gladiata (Kuwayama 1908) (Hemiptera: Psylloidea)
Management
Fig psylla, Homotoma ficus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Hemiptera: Psylloidea)
Management
Other hemipteran insects
14.5 Diptera
Oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae)
Management
Other fruit flies
Vinegar flies, Drosophila melanogaster (Meigen) (Diptera: Drosophilidae)
Management
Other flies
Black fig fly, Silba adipata McAlpine (Diptera: Lonchaeidae)
Management
14.6 Thysanoptera
Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)
Management
14.7 Hymenoptera
14.8 Acari
Two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae)
Management
Other mites
14.9 Vertebrate Pests
Bird damage
Garden Warbler, Sylvia borin (Boddaert)
Rodents
References
15 Fig Fruit Maturity, Harvest Methods and Technologies
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Maturity Definition
15.3 Fruit Growth and Development
Changes in fruit quality attributes
15.4 Parthenocarpic and pollinated fig
15.5 Genetic Differences for Ripening Among Cultivars
15.6 Harvesting Time, Methods and Handling
Fresh fig
Dried fig
References
16 Postharvest Physiology and Physiological Disorders of Fresh Fig Fruits
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Fruit Ripening and Quality
16.3 Bioactive Compounds and Antioxidant Activity
16.4 Postharvest Challenges
16.5 Postharvest Treatment of Fig Fruits
Postharvest handling
Fruit sorting and grading
Temperature management
Controlled atmosphere storage (CAS) and modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)
SO2 fumigation
MCP
16.6 Emerging Technologies
Cold plasma technology
Chlorine dioxide
Edible coating
Biocontrol
16.7 Fruit Cracking
16.8 General Remarks
References
17 Processing and Industrialization
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Methods of Processing
17.3 Fig Drying
17.4 Methods of Drying
Sun drying
Solar drying
Oven drying
Osmotic dehydration
17.5 More on Drying: Pre- and Post-drying Treatments
17.6 Other Processing Methods
Freezing
Canning
Jelly
Jam
Powder
17.7 Other Processed Fig Products
Syrup and paste
Achenes oil
Fruit latex
Conclusions
References
18 Fig and Health
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Nutrient Composition of Fresh and Dried Figs
Carbohydrates
Organic acids
Proteins
Vitamins
Fatty acids
Fiber
Minerals
18.3 Phytochemicals in Fresh and Dried Figs
Phenolic compounds
Furanocoumarins
Volatile compounds
Phytosterols
Terpenoids
Carotenoids
18.4 Functional Food Properties of Figs
18.5 Health Benefits of Figs
Antihyperlipidemic and anti-cholesterolimic effects
Antidiabetic and antiobesogenic effects
Cardiovascular diseases
Anticancer effect
Immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory
Antioxidant capacity
Bone health
Anticonstipation
Other health benefits
18.6 Traditional and Modern Medicinal Uses of Different Parts of the Fig Tree (Leaf, Shoot Bark and Latex)
Traditional medicinal uses
Modern medicinal uses (pharmacological activities)
Leaf and shoot bark
Latex
18.7 Fig and Allergy
18.8 Novel Products/Formulations and Future Trends
References
19 World Fig Market
19.1 Introduction
19.2 World Fig Production
Turkey
Egypt
Algeria
Morocco
Iran
19.3. World Fig Consumption
19.4. World Fig Trade
Fig exporting countries
Fig importing countries
19.5. Competitiveness and Market Power in the World Fig Market
19.6. Prioritizing Target Export Markets for Iran and Turkey
19.7. Fig Export Standards
Dried fig quality standards
Fresh fig quality standards
References
Index
Cabi
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