The Evolution of Illicit Flows: Displacement and Convergence among Transnational Crime

Acknowledgments
Contents
About the Editors
Contributors
1: Introduction to “The Evolution of Illicit Flows: Displacement and Convergence Among Transnational Crime”
Part I: Concepts, Theories, History, and Perspectives
2: The Displacement and Convergence of Transnational Crime Flows
Introduction
Conceptual Framework and Definitions
Displacement of Transnational Crimes
Convergence of Transnational Crimes
Interpretative Elements
Empirical Studies on Macro-Level Displacement and Convergence
Studies on the Displacement of Transnational Crimes
Studies on the Convergence of Transnational Crimes
Conclusion
References
3: Trafficking in the Mediterranean World: A Historical Perspective
A Transnational Space
Thalassocracy and Piracy in Classical Antiquity
Human Plunder in the Medieval Mediterranean World
Modern Thalassocracy and the Rise of Global Contraband Trade
Trafficking in the Humanitarian Age
Conclusion
References
4: Human Smuggling in the Mediterranean: A Comparative Analysis of the Central and Eastern Mediterranean Smuggling Routes
Introduction
A Note on Methods
Recent Trends in Migrant Smuggling
The Eastern Mediterranean Route
The Central Mediterranean Route
The Structure of Smuggling Networks
Modi Operandi and Structure
Interactions with Insurgent and Terrorist Organizations
Smugglers and Migrants
Migrant–Smuggler Interactions
Violence and Exploitation
Conclusion
References
5: Global Cocaine Flows, Geographical Displacement, and Crime Convergence
Introduction
A Global Overview of Illegal Drug Markets, with an Especial Focus on Cocaine
Seizures and Illegal Cocaine Flows
Crime Displacement in the Americas, and Crime Convergence in Colombia
Cocaine Smuggling Via the Caribbean
From Marijuana to Cocaine in Mexico
Crime Convergence in the Caribbean and Central America
Crime Displacement in South America: Smuggling Via Brazil and the Amazon
Cocaine Supply to Europe
Cocaine Smuggling Via North Africa to Europe
The Involvement of Organized Criminal Groups in Smuggling Via the Mediterranean
Crime Convergence Along New Cocaine Trafficking Routes
Conclusion
References
Part II: Topical Analyses in Convergence and Displacement of Transnational Crimes
6: Human Smuggling in North Africa: A Preliminary Exploration of Macro- and Micro-level Displacement Effects
Introduction
Displacement and Human Smuggling
Evidence Base for This Study
Macro-level Displacement Across Routes
A Long-Term View of Smuggling Trends
Examining Spatial Displacement Across Routes
Micro-level Displacement Within Routes
The Case of a Local Crackdown: Zuwara
Displacement Effects Following the Crackdown
Spatial Displacement
Offence Displacement
Desistance
Tactical Displacement Along Routes
Discussion and Conclusions
References
7: Displacement of Human Smuggling: An Exploratory Analysis of the Effects of Law 82/2016 in Egypt
Introduction
Literature on the Displacement of Human Smuggling
Present Study
Egyptian Law 82/2016 Against Human Smuggling
Theoretical Model
Methodology
Assessing Spatial Displacement
Data Exploited to Assess Spatial Displacement
Assessing Target Displacement
Data Exploited to Assess Target Displacement
Limitations
Results
Spatial Displacement
Target Displacement
Discussion and Conclusion
References
8: Can Migration Flows Be Controlled? The Effects of the Italian 2017–2018 Policy Against Illegal Immigration
Introduction
The Debate Over the Effectiveness of Migration Policies
The Italian 2017–2018 Migration Control Policy Against Illegal Immigration
Minniti–Orlando Decree
Italy–Libya Memorandum of Understanding
NGOs’ Search and Rescue Operations and Code of Conduct
Cooperation with Pre-frontier States
Cooperation with Libyan Militias
Methodology
Results
Reduction in Sea Arrivals
Other Effects of the Policy
Spatial Displacement
Migrant Smuggling Services
Dangerousness of Sea Crossing
Possible Future Directions (Intertemporal Relocation?)
Discussion
Conclusions
References
9: Does Human Smuggling Converge with Other Transnational Crimes in North Africa and the Mediterranean Area?
Introduction
Background and Problem Formulation
Methodology
Identification of Relevant Articles
Data Extraction and Generation
Quantitative Content Analysis
Results and Discussion
Conclusions
References
10: Structure and Evolution of Drug Trafficking Networks in North Africa: The Impact of Rule of Law and Corruption
Introduction
Background and Problem Formulation
Data and Methods
Drug Trafficking Network Data
Identification of Pertinent News Articles
Extraction of Network Data
Regression Analysis
Dependent Variable
Explanatory Variables
Econometric Model
Results and Discussion
Conclusions
References
Part III: Implications, Current Trends and Future Directions
11: Human Trafficking in the MENA Region: Trends and Perspectives
Introduction
Human Trafficking in the MENA Region
International and Regional Anti-Human Trafficking Legal Framework
International Anti-Human Trafficking Legal Framework
Regional Anti-Human Trafficking Legal Framework
Response to Human Trafficking in the MENA Region
Prevention
Protection
Prosecution
Participation
Convergence of Human Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling in the United Arab Emirates
A Country Profile: The United Arab Emirates
The Kafala System: Convergence of Human Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling
Crime Displacement in Egypt: Diversification of a Criminal Portfolio
A Country Profile: The Arab Republic of Egypt
Changing Tactics: Child Abuse and Exploitation in Daylight
Discussion
Conclusion
References
12: Future Directions in the Study of Displacement and Convergence Among Transnational Crime Flows
Introduction
Methodological Challenges and Potential Strategies for Assessing Causality
Agent-Based Models
Regression Discontinuity Designs
The Necessity for Improved Data
Focal Areas for Future Research
Temporal Characteristics of Displacement and Convergence
Spatial Displacement and Offender Replacement Nexus
Benign/Malign Impacts and Diffusion of Benefits
Conclusion
References
Index