Author(s): Alan C. Bovik
Publisher: Academic Press
Year: 2009
Language: English
Pages: 841
Cover Page
......Page 1
Copyright......Page 2
Preface......Page 3
About the Author......Page 5
1 Introduction to Digital Image Processing......Page 6
Types of Images......Page 7
Scale of Images......Page 9
Digitization of Images......Page 11
Sampled Images......Page 12
Quantized Images......Page 14
Color Images......Page 18
Size of Image Data......Page 20
Objectives of this Guide......Page 22
Organization of the Guide......Page 24
Reference......Page 26
Introduction......Page 27
LabVIEW for Image Processing......Page 28
The LabVIEW Development Environment......Page 29
NI Vision......Page 31
NI Vision Assistant......Page 34
Examples from the SIVA Image Processing Demos......Page 35
Conclusions......Page 42
Acknowledgments......Page 44
References......Page 45
Introduction......Page 46
Image Histogram......Page 47
Linear Point Operations on Images......Page 50
Additive Image Offset......Page 51
Multiplicative Image Scaling......Page 53
Image Negative......Page 54
Full-Scale Histogram Stretch......Page 56
Logarithmic Point Operations......Page 58
Histogram Equalization......Page 59
Histogram Shaping......Page 62
Arithmetic Operations Between Images......Page 63
Image Averaging for Noise Reduction......Page 64
Image Differencing for Change Detection......Page 66
Nearest Neighbor Interpolation......Page 68
Image Translation......Page 69
Image Zoom......Page 70
Introduction......Page 72
Image Thresholding......Page 74
Region Labeling Algorithm......Page 80
Minor Region Removal Algorithm......Page 81
Logical Operations......Page 82
Windows......Page 83
Morphological Filters......Page 85
Morphological Boundary Detection......Page 93
Binary Image Representation and Compression......Page 95
Run-Length Coding......Page 96
Chain Coding......Page 97
Discrete-Space Sinusoids......Page 100
Discrete-Space Fourier Transform......Page 103
Magnitude and Phase of DSFT......Page 104
Translation of DSFT......Page 105
2D Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT)......Page 106
Linearity and Invertibility of DFT......Page 108
Image Periodicity Implied by DFT......Page 109
Cyclic Convolution Property of the DFT......Page 110
Linear Convolution Using the DFT......Page 113
Displaying the DFT......Page 115
Frequency Granularity......Page 118
Frequency Orientation......Page 121
Related Topics in this Guide......Page 124
Overview......Page 125
Decimation and Interpolation......Page 128
Gaussian Pyramid......Page 129
Laplacian Pyramid......Page 130
Filter Banks......Page 131
Wavelet Decomposition......Page 132
Discrete Wavelet Bases......Page 135
Continuous Wavelet Bases......Page 137
More on Wavelet Image Representations......Page 138
Relation to Human Visual System......Page 139
Wavelet Packets......Page 140
Geometric Wavelets......Page 141
References......Page 142
What is Noise?......Page 145
Notions of Probability......Page 146
Elements of Estimation Theory......Page 148
Gaussian Noise......Page 151
Heavy Tailed Noise......Page 152
Gaussian Mixture Models......Page 155
Salt and Pepper Noise......Page 156
Quantization and Uniform Noise......Page 157
Photon Counting Noise......Page 158
Photographic Grain Noise......Page 161
CCD Imaging......Page 162
Speckle in Coherent Light Imaging......Page 163
Atmospheric Speckle......Page 167
Conclusions......Page 168
References......Page 169
Introduction......Page 170
Preliminary Notes on Display of Images......Page 171
Practical Sampling......Page 175
One-Dimensional Discrete System Representation......Page 176
Multidimensional System Representation......Page 178
Differences......Page 179
Analog Images as Physical Functions......Page 180
Colorimetry......Page 181
Color Sampling......Page 183
Discrete Representation of Color-Matching......Page 184
Properties of Color-Matching Functions......Page 185
Property 1 (Dependence of Color on A)......Page 186
Property 2 (Transformation of Primaries)......Page 187
Property 4 (Metamers and the Human Visual Subspace)......Page 188
Property 5 (Effect of Illumination)......Page 189
Notes on Sampling for Color Aliasing......Page 190
Uniform Color Spaces......Page 192
Sampling of Color Signals and Sensors......Page 194
Calibration Definitions and Terminology......Page 197
CRT Calibration......Page 198
Scanners and Cameras......Page 199
Printers......Page 200
Calibration Example......Page 201
References......Page 203
9 Capturing Visual Image Properties with Probabilistic Models......Page 206
The Gaussian Model......Page 208
The Wavelet Marginal Model......Page 212
Wavelet Local Contextual Models......Page 216
References......Page 221
Introduction......Page 225
Impulse Response, Linear Convolution,and Frequency Response......Page 227
Linear Image Enhancement......Page 230
Moving Average Filter......Page 231
Ideal Lowpass Filter......Page 233
Gaussian Filter......Page 236
References......Page 239
Introduction......Page 240
Distinguishing Images from Noise in Multiscale Representations......Page 241
Band Thresholding......Page 243
Band Weighting......Page 246
Subband Coefficient Denoising---A Pointwise Approach......Page 248
Coefficient Thresholding......Page 249
Coefficient Weighting......Page 251
Neighborhood Thresholding......Page 252
Neighborhood Weighting......Page 255
Statistical Modeling for Optimal Denoising......Page 256
Empirical Bayesian Methods......Page 257
Conclusions......Page 258
References......Page 259
Introduction......Page 261
Running Median Smoothers......Page 262
Weighted Median Smoothers......Page 265
The Center Weighted Median Smoother......Page 267
Permutation Weighted Median Smoothers......Page 269
Threshold Decomposition and Stack Smoothers......Page 270
Weighted Median Filters......Page 273
Image Noise Cleaning......Page 275
Image Zooming......Page 280
Image Sharpening......Page 282
Conclusion......Page 287
References......Page 288
Introduction......Page 290
Morphological Filters for Binary Images......Page 291
Morphological Filters for Gray-level Images......Page 292
Universality of Morphological Operators
......Page 293
Median, Rank, and Stack Filters......Page 294
Algebraic Generalizations of Morphological Operators......Page 295
Morphological Filters for Image Enhancement......Page 296
Median versus Open-Closing......Page 297
Area Openings......Page 298
Reconstruction Filters and Levelings......Page 299
Contrast Enhancement......Page 302
Morphological Correlation......Page 304
Binary Object Detection and Rank Filtering......Page 305
Edge Detection......Page 306
Linear Edge Operators......Page 307
Morphological Edge Detection......Page 308
Top-Hat Transformation......Page 311
Dome/Basin Extraction with Reconstruction Opening......Page 313
Design Approaches for Morphological Filters......Page 314
References......Page 316
Introduction......Page 319
Blur Models......Page 322
Linear Motion Blur......Page 323
Uniform Out-of-Focus Blur......Page 325
Image Restoration Algorithms......Page 326
Least-Squares Filters......Page 328
Iterative Filters......Page 334
Boundary Value Problem......Page 338
Blur Identification Algorithms......Page 339
Spectral Blur Estimation......Page 340
Maximum Likelihood Blur Estimation......Page 341
Expectation step......Page 342
References......Page 343
Introduction......Page 345
Iterative Recovery Algorithms......Page 346
Basic Iterative Restoration Algorithm......Page 347
Convergence......Page 348
Reblurring......Page 350
Experimental Results......Page 351
Ringing Artifacts......Page 356
Matrix-Vector Formulation......Page 357
Least-Squares Iteration......Page 358
Constrained Least-Squares Iteration......Page 359
Experimental Results......Page 360
Spatially Adaptive Iteration......Page 363
Use of Constraints......Page 364
Experimental Results......Page 366
Other Forms of the Iterative Algorithm......Page 367
Hierarchical Bayesian Image Restoration......Page 368
Blind Deconvolution......Page 370
Additional Applications......Page 371
Resolution Enhancement......Page 372
Restoration in Medical Imaging......Page 374
References......Page 377
Introduction......Page 380
Basics of Lossless Image Coding......Page 381
Lossless Symbol Coding......Page 385
Basic Concepts from Information Theory......Page 386
Context-Based Entropy Coding......Page 389
Huffman Coding......Page 390
Arithmetic Coding......Page 394
Lempel-Ziv Coding......Page 399
Elias and Exponential-Golomb Codes......Page 401
Elias Delta (d) Code......Page 402
Elias Omega (w) Code......Page 403
Exponential-Golomb Codes......Page 404
The JBIG and JBIG2 Standards......Page 405
The Lossless JPEG Standard......Page 406
The JPEG2000 Standard......Page 407
CALIC......Page 408
Perceptually Lossless Image Coding......Page 410
References......Page 412
Introduction......Page 415
Signal Transformation Unit: DCT......Page 417
Coefficient-to-Symbol Mapping Unit......Page 418
Discrete Cosine Transform......Page 419
DCT Coefficient Quantization Procedure......Page 420
Quantization Table Design......Page 423
DC Coefficient Symbols......Page 426
Mapping AC Coefficient to Symbols......Page 427
Entropy Coding......Page 428
Image Data Format and Components......Page 429
Alternative Modes of Operation......Page 430
Progressive Mode......Page 431
Hierarchical Mode......Page 433
Variable Quantization......Page 435
Tiling......Page 437
The JPEG2000 Standard......Page 439
JPEG2000 Part 1: Coding Architecture......Page 440
Preprocessing: Tiling, Level Offset, and Color Transforms......Page 441
Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT)......Page 442
Quantization and Inverse Quantization......Page 443
Context Formation......Page 444
Bit Plane Encoding Passes......Page 446
Arithmetic Coding......Page 447
Packets and Layers......Page 448
Region-of-Interest Coding......Page 449
Error Resilience......Page 450
Part 2 Extensions......Page 451
Useful Information and Links for the JPEG2000 Standard......Page 452
References......Page 453
What are Wavelets: Why are They Good for Image Coding?......Page 456
The Compression Problem......Page 462
The Transform Coding Paradigm......Page 464
Quantization......Page 467
Entropy Coding......Page 468
Subband Coding: The Early Days......Page 469
Zerotree-Based Framework and EZW Coding......Page 471
Advanced Wavelet Coders: High-Level Characterization......Page 478
Adaptive Wavelet Transforms: Wavelet Packets......Page 479
JPEG2000 and Related Developments......Page 483
Conclusion......Page 484
References......Page 485
Introduction......Page 487
Continuous Gradient......Page 490
Discrete Gradient Operators......Page 496
Continuous Laplacian......Page 501
Discrete Laplacian Operators......Page 502
The Laplacian of Gaussian (Marr-Hildreth Operator)......Page 504
Difference of Gaussian......Page 507
Canny's Method......Page 508
Approaches for Color and Multispectral Images......Page 510
References......Page 514
Edges and Anisotropic Diffusion......Page 517
Scale Space and Isotropic Diffusion......Page 518
Anisotropic Diffusion......Page 519
The Diffusion Coefficient......Page 520
The Diffusion PDE......Page 525
Variational Formulation......Page 527
Multiresolution Diffusion......Page 529
Multispectral Anisotropic Diffusion......Page 530
Speckle Reducing Anisotropic Diffusion......Page 531
Edge Detection by Thresholding......Page 534
Quantitative Evaluation of Edge Detection by Anisotropic Diffusion......Page 535
Parametric Active Contours......Page 538
Gradient Vector Flow......Page 539
Motion Gradient Vector Flow......Page 540
Conclusions......Page 541
References......Page 542
Introduction......Page 545
Human Vision Modeling Based Metrics......Page 547
Preprocessing......Page 548
Frequency Analysis......Page 549
Contrast Sensitivity......Page 551
Contrast Masking......Page 552
HVS-Based Models......Page 553
Visible Differences Predictor......Page 554
Sarnoff JND Vision Model......Page 555
Teo and Heeger Model......Page 556
Safranek-Johnston Perceptual Image Coder......Page 557
Watson's DCTune......Page 560
Visual Signal-to-Noise Ratio......Page 562
The Structural Similarity Index......Page 563
Image Quality Assessment Using SSIM......Page 565
Relation to HVS-Based Models......Page 568
Information Theoretic Metrics......Page 570
The Information Fidelity Criterion......Page 572
The Visual Information Fidelity Criterion......Page 573
Image Quality Assessment Using Information Theoretic Metrics......Page 575
Relation to HVS-Based Metrics and Structural Similarity......Page 577
Performance of Image Quality Metrics......Page 579
Conclusion......Page 580
References......Page 581
Introduction......Page 588
Applications of Watermarking Techniques......Page 589
Classification of Watermarking Algorithms......Page 592
Watermark Embedding, Detection, and Decoding......Page 595
Imperceptibility—Visual Quality......Page 597
Robustness......Page 598
Security......Page 601
Attacks Against Copyright Protection Watermarking Systems......Page 602
Stirmark......Page 604
Optimark......Page 605
Blind Additive Embedding with Correlation Detection......Page 606
Chaotic Watermarks......Page 609
Transformed Watermarks......Page 611
Template Watermarks......Page 613
Special Structure Watermarks......Page 614
Watermarking Systems Involving Optimal Detectors......Page 616
Informed Embedding Watermarking......Page 618
Informed Coding Watermarking......Page 620
Perceptual Masking......Page 625
Image Content Integrity and Authentication Watermarking......Page 627
Acknowledgment......Page 631
References......Page 632
Emerging Applications......Page 640
History of Fingerprints......Page 641
System Architecture......Page 643
Fingerprint Sensing......Page 644
Fingerprint Features......Page 646
Feature Extraction......Page 648
Fingerprint Enhancement......Page 651
Fingerprint Classification......Page 655
Fingerprint Matching......Page 659
Summary and Future Prospects......Page 664
References......Page 665
Biometric Perspective......Page 668
Experimental Perspective......Page 669
Theoretical Perspective......Page 670
Linear Lambertian Objects......Page 675
Literature Review and Proposed Approach......Page 677
The Importance of the Attached Shadow......Page 678
Recognition in the Presence of a Single Light Source......Page 679
Recognition in the Presence of Multiple Light Sources......Page 682
Literature Review......Page 684
Illumination- and Pose-Invariant Identity Signature......Page 685
Implementations and Experiments......Page 688
Face Modeling and Verification Across Age Progression......Page 690
Shape Transformation Model for Young Individuals [60]......Page 693
Shape Transformation Model for Adults [61]......Page 695
Texture Transformation Model......Page 697
Conclusions......Page 699
References......Page 700
Introduction......Page 705
Localizing the Iris and its Boundaries......Page 706
Iris Feature Encoding by 2D Gabor Wavelet Demodulation......Page 710
The Test of Statistical Independence: Combinatorics of Phase Sequences......Page 712
Recognizing Irises Regardless of Size, Position, and Orientation......Page 716
Uniqueness of Failing the Test of Statistical Independence......Page 718
Decision Environment for Iris Recognition......Page 721
Speed Performance Summary......Page 724
Appendix: 2D Focus Assessment at the Video Frame Rate......Page 725
References......Page 728
Background......Page 730
X-ray Computed Tomography......Page 731
Nuclear Imaging Using PET and SPECT......Page 733
Examples......Page 736
Fourier Space and Filtered Backprojection Methods for Parallel-Beam Projections......Page 737
Fan-Beam Filtered Backprojection......Page 740
Region of Interest Reconstruction......Page 742
Extracting 2D Data from 3D......Page 744
Spiral CT......Page 745
Rebinning Methods in 3D PET......Page 747
Fully 3D Reconstruction with Missing Data......Page 748
Cone-Beam Tomography......Page 750
Helical Multi-Slice CT Imaging......Page 753
Finite Dimensional Formulations and Algebraic Reconstruction Technique......Page 756
Statistical Formulations......Page 758
Maximum Likelihood Methods......Page 759
Bayesian Reconstruction Methods......Page 761
Summary......Page 762
References......Page 763
Introduction......Page 766
Computer-Assisted Microscopy Systems......Page 768
Illumination Source......Page 769
Filter Control......Page 770
X, Y Stage Positioning and Z-axis motors......Page 771
Image Sensors......Page 772
Imaging Software......Page 774
Software for Hardware Control......Page 775
Autofocusing......Page 776
Focus Functions......Page 777
Autofocus Speed......Page 778
Image Capture......Page 779
Background Shading Correction......Page 780
Surface Fitting......Page 781
Color Compensation......Page 783
Image Enhancement......Page 784
Threshold Selection......Page 785
Edge-based Methods......Page 786
Object Measurement......Page 787
Hardware......Page 788
Autofocus......Page 789
Fetal Cell Screening in Maternal Blood......Page 791
Subtelomeric FISH for Detection of Cryptic Translocations......Page 793
The STFISH assay......Page 794
Metaphase Finding......Page 795
Detection of Gene Duplications......Page 797
Dot-Finding......Page 798
Surface Fitting......Page 800
Ellipse Fitting......Page 802
Multiple Dots......Page 803
Four-Color FISH for Aneuploidy Screening......Page 806
Thick Specimen Imaging......Page 809
Deblurring......Page 811
Wavelet Design......Page 812
Wavelet Fusion......Page 813
Commercially Available Systems......Page 814
Conclusions......Page 815
Acknowledgments......Page 816
References......Page 817
28 Towards Video Processing......Page 821
B......Page 823
C......Page 824
D......Page 826
E......Page 827
F......Page 828
G......Page 829
H......Page 830
I......Page 831
J......Page 832
L......Page 833
M......Page 834
P......Page 835
Q......Page 836
S......Page 837
V......Page 839
W......Page 840
Z......Page 841
......Page 1
Copyright......Page 2
Preface......Page 3
About the Author......Page 5
1 Introduction to Digital Image Processing......Page 6
Types of Images......Page 7
Scale of Images......Page 9
Digitization of Images......Page 11
Sampled Images......Page 12
Quantized Images......Page 14
Color Images......Page 18
Size of Image Data......Page 20
Objectives of this Guide......Page 22
Organization of the Guide......Page 24
Reference......Page 26
Introduction......Page 27
LabVIEW for Image Processing......Page 28
The LabVIEW Development Environment......Page 29
NI Vision......Page 31
NI Vision Assistant......Page 34
Examples from the SIVA Image Processing Demos......Page 35
Conclusions......Page 42
Acknowledgments......Page 44
References......Page 45
Introduction......Page 46
Image Histogram......Page 47
Linear Point Operations on Images......Page 50
Additive Image Offset......Page 51
Multiplicative Image Scaling......Page 53
Image Negative......Page 54
Full-Scale Histogram Stretch......Page 56
Logarithmic Point Operations......Page 58
Histogram Equalization......Page 59
Histogram Shaping......Page 62
Arithmetic Operations Between Images......Page 63
Image Averaging for Noise Reduction......Page 64
Image Differencing for Change Detection......Page 66
Nearest Neighbor Interpolation......Page 68
Image Translation......Page 69
Image Zoom......Page 70
Introduction......Page 72
Image Thresholding......Page 74
Region Labeling Algorithm......Page 80
Minor Region Removal Algorithm......Page 81
Logical Operations......Page 82
Windows......Page 83
Morphological Filters......Page 85
Morphological Boundary Detection......Page 93
Binary Image Representation and Compression......Page 95
Run-Length Coding......Page 96
Chain Coding......Page 97
Discrete-Space Sinusoids......Page 100
Discrete-Space Fourier Transform......Page 103
Magnitude and Phase of DSFT......Page 104
Translation of DSFT......Page 105
2D Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT)......Page 106
Linearity and Invertibility of DFT......Page 108
Image Periodicity Implied by DFT......Page 109
Cyclic Convolution Property of the DFT......Page 110
Linear Convolution Using the DFT......Page 113
Displaying the DFT......Page 115
Frequency Granularity......Page 118
Frequency Orientation......Page 121
Related Topics in this Guide......Page 124
Overview......Page 125
Decimation and Interpolation......Page 128
Gaussian Pyramid......Page 129
Laplacian Pyramid......Page 130
Filter Banks......Page 131
Wavelet Decomposition......Page 132
Discrete Wavelet Bases......Page 135
Continuous Wavelet Bases......Page 137
More on Wavelet Image Representations......Page 138
Relation to Human Visual System......Page 139
Wavelet Packets......Page 140
Geometric Wavelets......Page 141
References......Page 142
What is Noise?......Page 145
Notions of Probability......Page 146
Elements of Estimation Theory......Page 148
Gaussian Noise......Page 151
Heavy Tailed Noise......Page 152
Gaussian Mixture Models......Page 155
Salt and Pepper Noise......Page 156
Quantization and Uniform Noise......Page 157
Photon Counting Noise......Page 158
Photographic Grain Noise......Page 161
CCD Imaging......Page 162
Speckle in Coherent Light Imaging......Page 163
Atmospheric Speckle......Page 167
Conclusions......Page 168
References......Page 169
Introduction......Page 170
Preliminary Notes on Display of Images......Page 171
Practical Sampling......Page 175
One-Dimensional Discrete System Representation......Page 176
Multidimensional System Representation......Page 178
Differences......Page 179
Analog Images as Physical Functions......Page 180
Colorimetry......Page 181
Color Sampling......Page 183
Discrete Representation of Color-Matching......Page 184
Properties of Color-Matching Functions......Page 185
Property 1 (Dependence of Color on A)......Page 186
Property 2 (Transformation of Primaries)......Page 187
Property 4 (Metamers and the Human Visual Subspace)......Page 188
Property 5 (Effect of Illumination)......Page 189
Notes on Sampling for Color Aliasing......Page 190
Uniform Color Spaces......Page 192
Sampling of Color Signals and Sensors......Page 194
Calibration Definitions and Terminology......Page 197
CRT Calibration......Page 198
Scanners and Cameras......Page 199
Printers......Page 200
Calibration Example......Page 201
References......Page 203
9 Capturing Visual Image Properties with Probabilistic Models......Page 206
The Gaussian Model......Page 208
The Wavelet Marginal Model......Page 212
Wavelet Local Contextual Models......Page 216
References......Page 221
Introduction......Page 225
Impulse Response, Linear Convolution,and Frequency Response......Page 227
Linear Image Enhancement......Page 230
Moving Average Filter......Page 231
Ideal Lowpass Filter......Page 233
Gaussian Filter......Page 236
References......Page 239
Introduction......Page 240
Distinguishing Images from Noise in Multiscale Representations......Page 241
Band Thresholding......Page 243
Band Weighting......Page 246
Subband Coefficient Denoising---A Pointwise Approach......Page 248
Coefficient Thresholding......Page 249
Coefficient Weighting......Page 251
Neighborhood Thresholding......Page 252
Neighborhood Weighting......Page 255
Statistical Modeling for Optimal Denoising......Page 256
Empirical Bayesian Methods......Page 257
Conclusions......Page 258
References......Page 259
Introduction......Page 261
Running Median Smoothers......Page 262
Weighted Median Smoothers......Page 265
The Center Weighted Median Smoother......Page 267
Permutation Weighted Median Smoothers......Page 269
Threshold Decomposition and Stack Smoothers......Page 270
Weighted Median Filters......Page 273
Image Noise Cleaning......Page 275
Image Zooming......Page 280
Image Sharpening......Page 282
Conclusion......Page 287
References......Page 288
Introduction......Page 290
Morphological Filters for Binary Images......Page 291
Morphological Filters for Gray-level Images......Page 292
Universality of Morphological Operators
......Page 293
Median, Rank, and Stack Filters......Page 294
Algebraic Generalizations of Morphological Operators......Page 295
Morphological Filters for Image Enhancement......Page 296
Median versus Open-Closing......Page 297
Area Openings......Page 298
Reconstruction Filters and Levelings......Page 299
Contrast Enhancement......Page 302
Morphological Correlation......Page 304
Binary Object Detection and Rank Filtering......Page 305
Edge Detection......Page 306
Linear Edge Operators......Page 307
Morphological Edge Detection......Page 308
Top-Hat Transformation......Page 311
Dome/Basin Extraction with Reconstruction Opening......Page 313
Design Approaches for Morphological Filters......Page 314
References......Page 316
Introduction......Page 319
Blur Models......Page 322
Linear Motion Blur......Page 323
Uniform Out-of-Focus Blur......Page 325
Image Restoration Algorithms......Page 326
Least-Squares Filters......Page 328
Iterative Filters......Page 334
Boundary Value Problem......Page 338
Blur Identification Algorithms......Page 339
Spectral Blur Estimation......Page 340
Maximum Likelihood Blur Estimation......Page 341
Expectation step......Page 342
References......Page 343
Introduction......Page 345
Iterative Recovery Algorithms......Page 346
Basic Iterative Restoration Algorithm......Page 347
Convergence......Page 348
Reblurring......Page 350
Experimental Results......Page 351
Ringing Artifacts......Page 356
Matrix-Vector Formulation......Page 357
Least-Squares Iteration......Page 358
Constrained Least-Squares Iteration......Page 359
Experimental Results......Page 360
Spatially Adaptive Iteration......Page 363
Use of Constraints......Page 364
Experimental Results......Page 366
Other Forms of the Iterative Algorithm......Page 367
Hierarchical Bayesian Image Restoration......Page 368
Blind Deconvolution......Page 370
Additional Applications......Page 371
Resolution Enhancement......Page 372
Restoration in Medical Imaging......Page 374
References......Page 377
Introduction......Page 380
Basics of Lossless Image Coding......Page 381
Lossless Symbol Coding......Page 385
Basic Concepts from Information Theory......Page 386
Context-Based Entropy Coding......Page 389
Huffman Coding......Page 390
Arithmetic Coding......Page 394
Lempel-Ziv Coding......Page 399
Elias and Exponential-Golomb Codes......Page 401
Elias Delta (d) Code......Page 402
Elias Omega (w) Code......Page 403
Exponential-Golomb Codes......Page 404
The JBIG and JBIG2 Standards......Page 405
The Lossless JPEG Standard......Page 406
The JPEG2000 Standard......Page 407
CALIC......Page 408
Perceptually Lossless Image Coding......Page 410
References......Page 412
Introduction......Page 415
Signal Transformation Unit: DCT......Page 417
Coefficient-to-Symbol Mapping Unit......Page 418
Discrete Cosine Transform......Page 419
DCT Coefficient Quantization Procedure......Page 420
Quantization Table Design......Page 423
DC Coefficient Symbols......Page 426
Mapping AC Coefficient to Symbols......Page 427
Entropy Coding......Page 428
Image Data Format and Components......Page 429
Alternative Modes of Operation......Page 430
Progressive Mode......Page 431
Hierarchical Mode......Page 433
Variable Quantization......Page 435
Tiling......Page 437
The JPEG2000 Standard......Page 439
JPEG2000 Part 1: Coding Architecture......Page 440
Preprocessing: Tiling, Level Offset, and Color Transforms......Page 441
Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT)......Page 442
Quantization and Inverse Quantization......Page 443
Context Formation......Page 444
Bit Plane Encoding Passes......Page 446
Arithmetic Coding......Page 447
Packets and Layers......Page 448
Region-of-Interest Coding......Page 449
Error Resilience......Page 450
Part 2 Extensions......Page 451
Useful Information and Links for the JPEG2000 Standard......Page 452
References......Page 453
What are Wavelets: Why are They Good for Image Coding?......Page 456
The Compression Problem......Page 462
The Transform Coding Paradigm......Page 464
Quantization......Page 467
Entropy Coding......Page 468
Subband Coding: The Early Days......Page 469
Zerotree-Based Framework and EZW Coding......Page 471
Advanced Wavelet Coders: High-Level Characterization......Page 478
Adaptive Wavelet Transforms: Wavelet Packets......Page 479
JPEG2000 and Related Developments......Page 483
Conclusion......Page 484
References......Page 485
Introduction......Page 487
Continuous Gradient......Page 490
Discrete Gradient Operators......Page 496
Continuous Laplacian......Page 501
Discrete Laplacian Operators......Page 502
The Laplacian of Gaussian (Marr-Hildreth Operator)......Page 504
Difference of Gaussian......Page 507
Canny's Method......Page 508
Approaches for Color and Multispectral Images......Page 510
References......Page 514
Edges and Anisotropic Diffusion......Page 517
Scale Space and Isotropic Diffusion......Page 518
Anisotropic Diffusion......Page 519
The Diffusion Coefficient......Page 520
The Diffusion PDE......Page 525
Variational Formulation......Page 527
Multiresolution Diffusion......Page 529
Multispectral Anisotropic Diffusion......Page 530
Speckle Reducing Anisotropic Diffusion......Page 531
Edge Detection by Thresholding......Page 534
Quantitative Evaluation of Edge Detection by Anisotropic Diffusion......Page 535
Parametric Active Contours......Page 538
Gradient Vector Flow......Page 539
Motion Gradient Vector Flow......Page 540
Conclusions......Page 541
References......Page 542
Introduction......Page 545
Human Vision Modeling Based Metrics......Page 547
Preprocessing......Page 548
Frequency Analysis......Page 549
Contrast Sensitivity......Page 551
Contrast Masking......Page 552
HVS-Based Models......Page 553
Visible Differences Predictor......Page 554
Sarnoff JND Vision Model......Page 555
Teo and Heeger Model......Page 556
Safranek-Johnston Perceptual Image Coder......Page 557
Watson's DCTune......Page 560
Visual Signal-to-Noise Ratio......Page 562
The Structural Similarity Index......Page 563
Image Quality Assessment Using SSIM......Page 565
Relation to HVS-Based Models......Page 568
Information Theoretic Metrics......Page 570
The Information Fidelity Criterion......Page 572
The Visual Information Fidelity Criterion......Page 573
Image Quality Assessment Using Information Theoretic Metrics......Page 575
Relation to HVS-Based Metrics and Structural Similarity......Page 577
Performance of Image Quality Metrics......Page 579
Conclusion......Page 580
References......Page 581
Introduction......Page 588
Applications of Watermarking Techniques......Page 589
Classification of Watermarking Algorithms......Page 592
Watermark Embedding, Detection, and Decoding......Page 595
Imperceptibility—Visual Quality......Page 597
Robustness......Page 598
Security......Page 601
Attacks Against Copyright Protection Watermarking Systems......Page 602
Stirmark......Page 604
Optimark......Page 605
Blind Additive Embedding with Correlation Detection......Page 606
Chaotic Watermarks......Page 609
Transformed Watermarks......Page 611
Template Watermarks......Page 613
Special Structure Watermarks......Page 614
Watermarking Systems Involving Optimal Detectors......Page 616
Informed Embedding Watermarking......Page 618
Informed Coding Watermarking......Page 620
Perceptual Masking......Page 625
Image Content Integrity and Authentication Watermarking......Page 627
Acknowledgment......Page 631
References......Page 632
Emerging Applications......Page 640
History of Fingerprints......Page 641
System Architecture......Page 643
Fingerprint Sensing......Page 644
Fingerprint Features......Page 646
Feature Extraction......Page 648
Fingerprint Enhancement......Page 651
Fingerprint Classification......Page 655
Fingerprint Matching......Page 659
Summary and Future Prospects......Page 664
References......Page 665
Biometric Perspective......Page 668
Experimental Perspective......Page 669
Theoretical Perspective......Page 670
Linear Lambertian Objects......Page 675
Literature Review and Proposed Approach......Page 677
The Importance of the Attached Shadow......Page 678
Recognition in the Presence of a Single Light Source......Page 679
Recognition in the Presence of Multiple Light Sources......Page 682
Literature Review......Page 684
Illumination- and Pose-Invariant Identity Signature......Page 685
Implementations and Experiments......Page 688
Face Modeling and Verification Across Age Progression......Page 690
Shape Transformation Model for Young Individuals [60]......Page 693
Shape Transformation Model for Adults [61]......Page 695
Texture Transformation Model......Page 697
Conclusions......Page 699
References......Page 700
Introduction......Page 705
Localizing the Iris and its Boundaries......Page 706
Iris Feature Encoding by 2D Gabor Wavelet Demodulation......Page 710
The Test of Statistical Independence: Combinatorics of Phase Sequences......Page 712
Recognizing Irises Regardless of Size, Position, and Orientation......Page 716
Uniqueness of Failing the Test of Statistical Independence......Page 718
Decision Environment for Iris Recognition......Page 721
Speed Performance Summary......Page 724
Appendix: 2D Focus Assessment at the Video Frame Rate......Page 725
References......Page 728
Background......Page 730
X-ray Computed Tomography......Page 731
Nuclear Imaging Using PET and SPECT......Page 733
Examples......Page 736
Fourier Space and Filtered Backprojection Methods for Parallel-Beam Projections......Page 737
Fan-Beam Filtered Backprojection......Page 740
Region of Interest Reconstruction......Page 742
Extracting 2D Data from 3D......Page 744
Spiral CT......Page 745
Rebinning Methods in 3D PET......Page 747
Fully 3D Reconstruction with Missing Data......Page 748
Cone-Beam Tomography......Page 750
Helical Multi-Slice CT Imaging......Page 753
Finite Dimensional Formulations and Algebraic Reconstruction Technique......Page 756
Statistical Formulations......Page 758
Maximum Likelihood Methods......Page 759
Bayesian Reconstruction Methods......Page 761
Summary......Page 762
References......Page 763
Introduction......Page 766
Computer-Assisted Microscopy Systems......Page 768
Illumination Source......Page 769
Filter Control......Page 770
X, Y Stage Positioning and Z-axis motors......Page 771
Image Sensors......Page 772
Imaging Software......Page 774
Software for Hardware Control......Page 775
Autofocusing......Page 776
Focus Functions......Page 777
Autofocus Speed......Page 778
Image Capture......Page 779
Background Shading Correction......Page 780
Surface Fitting......Page 781
Color Compensation......Page 783
Image Enhancement......Page 784
Threshold Selection......Page 785
Edge-based Methods......Page 786
Object Measurement......Page 787
Hardware......Page 788
Autofocus......Page 789
Fetal Cell Screening in Maternal Blood......Page 791
Subtelomeric FISH for Detection of Cryptic Translocations......Page 793
The STFISH assay......Page 794
Metaphase Finding......Page 795
Detection of Gene Duplications......Page 797
Dot-Finding......Page 798
Surface Fitting......Page 800
Ellipse Fitting......Page 802
Multiple Dots......Page 803
Four-Color FISH for Aneuploidy Screening......Page 806
Thick Specimen Imaging......Page 809
Deblurring......Page 811
Wavelet Design......Page 812
Wavelet Fusion......Page 813
Commercially Available Systems......Page 814
Conclusions......Page 815
Acknowledgments......Page 816
References......Page 817
28 Towards Video Processing......Page 821
B......Page 823
C......Page 824
D......Page 826
E......Page 827
F......Page 828
G......Page 829
H......Page 830
I......Page 831
J......Page 832
L......Page 833
M......Page 834
P......Page 835
Q......Page 836
S......Page 837
V......Page 839
W......Page 840
Z......Page 841