The End of Empires

Preface
References
Contents
Contributors
Decline, Erosion, Implosion and Fall, or Just Transformation? Diverging Ends of Empires Through Time and Space
1 General Observations
2 More Specific Observations
3 Summaries
3.1 Antiquity
The End of the Mesopotamian `Empire´ of Akkad
The Decline of the Ur III Dynasty: The End of an Empire and Its Afterlife in the Collective Memory of Mesopotamian Societies
The Collapse of the Hittite Kingdom
The End of New Kingdom Egypt
The End of the Neo-Assyrian Empire
The ``End´´ of the Achaemenid-Persian Empire: Caesura and Transformation in Dialogue
The End of the Roman Empire: Civil Wars, the Imperial Monarchy, and the End of Antiquity
The End of the Parthian Arsacid Empire
The End of Ērānsahar: The Decline of the Sasanian Empire
The End of the Kushan Empire
3.2 Islam and Muslim World
From Universalism to Regionalism. The Question of the Break-Up of the Abbasid Empire Revisited
The End of the Mongol Empire
The End of the Timurid Empire
3.3 Africa, Asia, China
The Decline and Collapse of the Kingdom of Aksum (6th-7th CE): An Environmental Disaster or the End of a Political Process?
What Role Did Climate Change Play in the Decline of the Tang Dynasty?
Thoughts About the Decentralization of the Mughal Empire
How Do Empires Fall? Two Case Studies from Pre-Modern Southeast Asia
3.4 The Americas
The Decline and Fall of the Inca Empire
The Downfall of Aztec Rule, 1519-21
3.5 Middle Ages and Modern History
The Fall of the Napoleonic Empire
The End of the Spanish Colonial Empire
The End of the Portuguese Colonial Empire
The End of the Polish-Lithuanian Empire
3.6 The End of World War I
Structural Problems, Personal Failure, or Just Contingency? The End of the Russian Empire
The End of the German Empire 1918
The End of the Habsburg Monarchy
The Long Lasting End of the Ottoman Empire
3.7 The End of World War II and the Cold War
The Decline and Breakdown of the Fascist Italian Pseudo-Post-Roman Empire
The Rise and Fall of Hitler´s Empire (1933-1945)
The End of the USSR
A Never-Ending Empire? The Decline of the United Kingdom
America´s Decline on Display: The Presidential Transition
4 Final Considerations
Bibliography
Select Bibliography on the `Imperial Turn´
Part I: Antiquity
Der Zusammenbruch des mesopotamischen Staates von Akkade
1 Die Begründung und Konsolidierung des Reiches von Akkade
2 Krise und erneuter Machthöhepunkt des Reiches von Akkade
3 Krise und Untergang des Reiches von Akkade
4 Reflexion des Untergangs des Reiches von Akkade und Fazit
Literatur
The Decline of the Ur III Dynasty: The End of an Empire and Its Afterlife in the Collective Memory of Mesopotamian Societies
1 Prolegomena: Pre-history
2 The Ur III State: An Empire?
2.1 The Story of the Decline of Ur III and Its Historical Problems
2.2 Sources and Source-Criticism
Parameters
Royal Inscriptions and Royal Hymns
Documentary Sources
Year Names
Royal Correspondence
City Laments
Historical Omina
3 Evaluation: The Reasons for the Collapse of Ur III: And the Quest for One More ``Short-Term Empire´´?
3.1 Not an Abrupt End, but a Transformation?
4 The Afterlife of the Fall of Ur: Its Remembrance in the Collective Memory of Babylonia as a Scholarly Master Narrative
4.1 The Afterlife of an Empire´s End in Historical Omina
4.2 The Afterlife of an Empire´s End in Sumerian Literary Texts, Especially in Sumerian City Laments and Their Theological Rea...
5 Summary
Bibliography
The Collapse of the Hittite Kingdom
1 The Event
2 The Possible Causal Factors of the Collapse
2.1 The Lack of Labour Forces
2.2 Shortage of Food
2.3 Movements of Peoples
2.4 The Broken Political and Social Network
3 The End
Bibliography
The End of New Kingdom Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Available Evidence
2.1 Written and Iconographic Sources
Ancient Egyptian Historiography (?) or How Useful Are the Texts?
2.2 Archaeological Evidence
3 Changes
4 The Reasons of Change
4.1 Natural Factors
4.2 Exogenous Reasons
The Libyans: Battles, Egyptianization and Conquest
Sea Peoples
Interruption of International Networks
4.3 Endogenous Reasons
The Protagonists: Dynastic Coincidence and Problems in Succession
Economic Problems and Cultural Change
Imperial Overstretch
5 Conclusion
Bibliography
The End of the Neo-Assyrian Empire
1 Looking for Premises of Collapse
2 Assyrian Dynastic Succession and Babylonian Elites
3 The Empire´s Overthrow
4 Concluding Remarks
Bibliography
The ``End´´ of the Achaemenid-Persian Empire: Caesura and Transformation in Dialogue
1 Introduction
2 Some Observations on the Structure of the Achaemenid Empire in the Fourth c. BCE and the Aegean as an Imperial Border Zone
3 Greek Perspectives and Larger Contexts
4 The Role of Alexander III
5 Comparative Aspects and Conclusion
Bibliography
The End of the Roman Empire: Civil Wars, the Imperial Monarchy, and the End of Antiquity
Bibliography
The End of the Parthian Arsacid Empire
1 Introduction
2 Collapse, Erosion, or Implosion
3 Parthian Presence in Sasanian Garb
4 Gondopharid Connections
5 The Dārāyānids in Persis
6 In Guise of Conclusion
References
The End of the Ērānsahar: The Decline of the Sasanian Empire
1 The Resources of the Sasanian Empire
2 Barbarization of the Sasanian Army and Barracks Kings
3 Prestige of the King and the Coup
Bibliography
The End of the Kushan Empire
1 Preliminary Remarks
2 The Kushan Empire as an Imperial Structure
3 Borders and Neighbours of the Kushan Empire
4 The End of Kushan Rule in Central Asia and India: An Attempt at Temporal and Spatial Determination
5 Disruption or Transformation: The End of Kushan Rule as a Research Problem
Bibliography
Part II: Islam/Muslim World
From Universalism to Regionalism: The Question of the Break-Up of the Abbasid Empire Revisited
1 Decline and Fall of Empires: Types of Imperial Collapse
2 Reasons for Imperial Collapse
3 The Abbasid Empire: Forces of Stability and Unity
4 Breakdown at Centre I: Al-Mutawakkil, the Period of Anarchy at Samarra (861-870), and the Great Slave Revolt
5 Breakdown at Centre II: The Tenth Century
6 Demise and Survival: What Is Falling in the Fall of the Abbasids?
7 Reasons for Regionalisation
8 Postface: Abbasids and Carolingians
Bibliography
The End of the Mongol Empire
1 Fission Processes
2 First Stage: Breakup of the Unitary Empire
3 Second Stage: China
4 Second Stage: Iran
5 Second Stage: Golden Horde
6 Second Stage: Chaghatay Khanate
7 Disputed Successions
8 From Patrimonial Household to Aristocratic Rule
9 Redistribution Mechanisms
10 Differences
11 Conclusion
Bibliography
The End of the Timurid Empire
Bibliography
Part III: Africa, Asia, China
The Decline and Collapse of the Kingdom of Aksum (6th-7th CE): An Environmental Disaster or the End of a Political Process?
Bibliography
What Role Did Climate Change Play in the Decline of the Tang Dynasty?
1 A Brief Overview of the Traditional Chinese View of the Decline of the Tang
2 Social Unrest and Migration
3 Modern Attempts to Identify Climate Change as the Reason for the Rise and Fall of Steppe Empires and the Case of the Tang
4 Conclusions
Bibliography
An Opinion on the Decentralization of the Mughal Empire
1 The Importance of Geography and Logistics for Indian Empires
2 Can we Talk of Decline?
3 The Structure of the Mughal Empire
4 Development of the Empire under Jahangir and Shah Jahan
5 The Crisis in the Later Years of Aurangzeb
6 The Rise of Successor States and the Political System of the Eighteenth Century
6.1 1707-13: Impossibility of Reasserting Centralized Power over both Rebels and Officers
6.2 1713-22: Power Struggles Weaken the Centre while the Provinces Assert Themselves
6.3 1722-39: Independent Provinces and Rebel States Establish their Own Systems; The Emperor Is Reduced to a Symbol of Authori...
6.4 1739-48: Destruction of the Centre
7 British Expansion and the End of the System of Successor States
8 Conclusion
Bibliography
How Do Empires Fall? Two Case Studies from Pre-Modern Southeast Asia
1 Introduction
2 Dynastic Decline
3 Religious Change
4 Over-Exploitation of Resources and Imperial Overstretch
5 Military Defeat
6 Environmental Causes
7 Conclusion
Bibliography
Part IV: The Americas
The Decline and Fall of the Inca Empire
1 The Basic Structure of the Inca Empire
2 The War of Succession
3 The Conquistadors
4 The Death of Atahuallpa
5 The First Part of the Conquest
6 The Second Part of the Conquest
7 The Inca Refuge and Relict State of Vilcabamba
8 The Fall of Vilcabamba
9 Conclusions
Bibliography
The Downfall of Aztec Rule, 1519-1521
1 The State of the Mexica
2 The Spanish Conquest
3 The Political Decline of the Aztecs
4 Reception
5 Conclusion
6 Postscript
Bibliography
Other
Part V: Middle Age and Modern History
The Fall of the Napoleonic Empire
1 The Existential Crisis: 1812-1814
2 Systemic Weaknesses: Their Relative Potential for Imperial Implosion
2.1 `Over Stretch´ and the Imperial Core: Inner and Outer Empires, Their Strengths and Liabilities
2.2 Internal Opposition
3 Conclusion: Apportioning Blame?
Bibliography
Das Ende des spanischen Kolonialreiches
1 Die Fragestellungen
2 Die bourbonischen Reformen
2.1 Gründe für die Reformen: die spanische „Dekadenz``
2.2 Ziele der Reformen: Wirtschaftsaufschwung und Sicherung des Imperiums
2.3 Die Militärreform: Militarisierung der Kolonialgesellschaft
2.4 Die Verwaltungsreform: Einführung des Intendantensystems
2.5 Die Wirtschaftsreform: Wachstum und gesellschaftliche Veränderungen
2.6 Sozialrevolten und kreolische Abwendung von Spanien
3 Aufklärung und Revolution
3.1 Französische Revolution und Unabhängigkeit der USA
3.2 Aufklärungsphilosophie als geistige Triebkraft
4 Der Nationalismus: Kreolen versus Europäer
5 Exogene Faktoren der Unabhängigkeitsbewegung: Napoleon und der Zerfall der Metropole
5.1 Kreolische Ablehnung des französischen Usurpators
5.2 Die Junta-Bewegung zwischen Loyalität und Unabhängigkeitsstreben
6 Die Antworten
Literatur
The End of the Portuguese Colonial Empire
1 The Making of an Empire
2 The ``African´´ Empire and Its Critics at the International Level
3 Waging War in Africa
4 A War of Attrition
5 New Head, Different Course?
6 Erosion from Within and the End of an Empire
7 Concluding Thoughts
Bibliography
Das Ende des polnisch-litauischen Großreichs als Diskussionsfrage
1 Einleitung
2 Die Dynamik der Entstehung, Entwicklung und des Niedergangs des polnisch-litauischen Reiches
3 Die Geschichte des Doppelreiches als der Weg zum Niedergang - historiographischer Streit
4 Geschichte und Vorgeschichte des Untergangs
5 Die Frage des Untergangs der polnisch-litauischen Republik in den Synthesen der polnischen Geschichte
6 Zusammenfassung
Literatur
Part VI: The End of World War I
Structural Problems, Personal Failure or Just Contingency? The End of the Russian Empire
1 Structural Deficits of the Russian Empire
2 The Personal Factor
3 A Hopeless Case? Russia´s Perspectives Before the Revolution
4 Conclusion
Bibliography
The End of the German Empire
1 A Short History of the German Empire
2 A Surprising End to the Monarchy
3 Conclusion
Bibliography
The End of the Habsburg Monarchy
1 Preliminary Remark on the History of Reception
2 The Habsburg Monarchy as an Empire
3 The Complex Constitutional Order of the Habsburg Monarchy
4 The Habsburg Monarchy in the System of International Relations
5 Succession to the Throne, Failed New Beginning and Fall of the Habsburg Monarchy
6 Conclusion
Bibliography
The Long Lasting End of the Ottoman Empire
Bibliography
Part VII: The End of World War II and the Cold War
Das Ende des faschistischen Imperiums
1 Vorgeschichte
2 Der Konnex zwischen dem Zusammenbruch des Faschismus und dem Ende des italienischen Kolonialreichs
3 Postkoloniale Nachspiele
4 Einordnung
4.1 Was unterscheidet das faschistische von anderen Imperien?
4.2 Hinterlassenschaft
4.3 Aufarbeitung und Rezeption
Literatur
The Rise and Fall of Hitler´s Empire (1933-1945)
1 The Rise of Hitler´s Empire (1933-39)
2 Hitler´s Empire at the Peak (1939-41)
3 The Decline of Hitler´s Empire (1942-44)
4 The Fall of Hitler´s Empire (1944/45)
Bibliography
The End of the USSR
1 Crisis
1.1 Imperial Overstretch
1.2 Economic and Social Crises
1.3 Political Crisis
2 Reform
2.1 Economic Reforms
2.2 Glasnost and Perestroika
2.3 State Reform
2.4 The New Thinking in Foreign Policy
3 Dissolution
3.1 The East European Revolutions
3.2 The National Movements in the Soviet Republics
3.3 Economic Crisis and De-legitimization Again
3.4 The New Union Treaty, the Putsch and the End
4 Conclusion
4.1 Inevitability
4.2 Legacy
References
A Never-Ending Empire? The Decline of the United Kingdom
1 Conditions for Emergence and Development Factors
2 Organization, Structure, and Reorientation
3 Efficiency, Imperial Continuity, and Transformation
4 The Classic Arguments for Decline
5 Specific Reasons for the Debate on the Onset of the Decline of the British Empire in Historical Research
5.1 The Dichotomy of Liberalism and Imperialism
5.2 Hubris and Nemesis
5.3 Rivalry and Competition
References
The Decline of the American Empire
1 The Anti-Imperial Empire
2 The Unipolar Moment: An American Illusion
3 From Imperial Presidency to Autocracy
4 Is America Like Rome?
5 Present at the Destruction: President Trump´s Foreign Policy
5.1 ``America First´´ Means America Alone
5.2 The European Union as Foe
6 The China Threat
6.1 The Chinese Empire
6.2 Trump´s Trade War
6.3 The Battle for Technological Supremacy
7 Preparing for a Post-Dollar World?
7.1 Economic Sanctions: The Risk of Overuse
7.2 Chinese-Russian Drives to Dethrone the Dollar
7.3 The Cryptocurrency Challenge
7.4 Debts and Deficits
7.5 American System and Geopolitics
7.6 The Dollar and Empire
8 The New World of Energy: The US an Energy Superpower?
9 The Meltdown of American Soft Power
9.1 US Image Abroad in Decline
9.2 A President Laughed at
9.3 China Goes Hollywood
10 The Black Swan Has Landed: The Pandemic as Turning Point?
11 America´s Decline on Display: The Presidential Transition
11.1 The Assault on Congress: A Day of Infamy
11.2 China´s Geopolitical Gains
12 Donald Trump, Catalyst for Global Shifts?
13 Paul Kennedy Vindicated
14 ``To Win the Twenty-first Century´´: President Biden´s Quest for Imperial Global Hegemony
14.1 Biden´s Foreign Policy Agenda
14.2 Foreign Policy Begins at Home
15 The Sino-American Confrontation
15.1 What Kind of World Order?
15.2 A New Cold War?
15.3 American Imperial Overstretch?
15.4 Chinese Imperial Overstretch?
16 A ``Totally New Era´´?
Bibliography