The Encyclopedia of Cell Technology, 2 Volume Set (Wiley Biotechnology Encyclopedias)

Front Matter......Page 1
Preface......Page 4
Contributors......Page 6
Commonly Used Acronyms and Abbreviations......Page 9
Conversion Factors, Abbreviations, and Unit Symbols......Page 11
Nomenclature for Bioreactor Operations: Preparation, Sterilization, Charging, Culture Initiation and Harvesting......Page 14
Introduction......Page 15
Table of Contents......Page 0
Table of Contents......Page 16
Definition and Objective of Acclimatization......Page 48
General Characteristics of the in vitro Environment......Page 49
Ex vitro Acclimatization and General Responses of Plants in Conventional, Micropropagation......Page 51
Reasons for the Difficulty of ex vitro Acclimatization in Conventional Micropropagation......Page 52
Environmental Control Unit for the ex vitro Acclimatization......Page 54
In vitro Acclimatization......Page 55
Advantages of Photoautotrophic Micropropagation......Page 56
Bibliography......Page 57
Formation of Adventitious Meristems and Organs......Page 60
Factors Influencing Adventitious Organogenesis......Page 65
Biochemical and Molecular Aspects......Page 70
Bibliography......Page 71
Introduction......Page 73
Leaf Anatomy of in vitro-grown Plants......Page 74
Hyperhydricity......Page 75
Anatomy of Somatic Embryogenic Cultures......Page 76
Anatomy of Organogenic Cultures......Page 77
Anatomy of Plant Protoplast......Page 78
Anatomy of Callus Cultures......Page 79
Bibliography......Page 80
In vitro Seed Germination and Embryo Culture......Page 81
Propagation from Vegetative Material......Page 82
Secondary Metabolite Production......Page 83
Bibliography......Page 84
Outline......Page 85
Serum......Page 86
Serum-Free Media......Page 87
Medium Development for Large-Scale Production......Page 88
Development of Serum-Free Media: A Case Study......Page 89
Bibliography......Page 90
Introduction......Page 91
Ultimate Goal of Scale-up......Page 92
Various Semiempirical Scale-up Methods......Page 93
Bibliography......Page 100
Oxygen in Animal Cell Culture......Page 102
Acknowledgments......Page 107
Bibliography......Page 108
Osmolality......Page 109
Temperature......Page 112
Bibliography......Page 113
pH Homeostasis......Page 115
pH Gradients in Tissues......Page 116
pH Gradients in Cell Culture Systems......Page 117
pH Effects on Cell Growth, Protein Production, and Glycosylation......Page 119
Bibliography......Page 121
Introduction......Page 122
Principles of the Production Process......Page 123
Cell Products......Page 125
Bibliography......Page 127
B Cells in vivo......Page 128
B Cells in vitro......Page 130
Human Diploid Fibroblasts......Page 131
Challenges for the Use of Cell Substrates......Page 133
Bibliography......Page 134
Antibody-Producing Hybridomas......Page 135
T-Cell Hybridomas......Page 139
Bibliography......Page 140
Outline......Page 141
Tubular Cell Cultures......Page 142
Bibliography......Page 146
Outline......Page 148
Hepatocytes in vitro......Page 149
Hepatic Cell Lines......Page 150
Bibliography......Page 151
Macrophages in vitro......Page 152
Dendritic Cells......Page 153
Bibliography......Page 154
Ovarian Cells in vitro......Page 155
Ovarian Cell Culture......Page 156
Outline......Page 158
Generation of T-Cell Clones......Page 159
T-Cell Lines......Page 160
Bibliography......Page 161
Introduction......Page 162
Aseptic Technique: General Considerations......Page 164
Aseptic Technique: Basic Procedures......Page 166
HEPA Filtration......Page 168
Hoods and Cabinets Employing HEPA Filtration......Page 170
Working within Laminar Flow Hoods and Microbiological Safety Cabinets......Page 172
Testing Class I and Class II Microbiological Safety Cabinets......Page 173
Clean Rooms for Cell Culture Use......Page 177
Appendix 1: Basis of Particulate Classification System......Page 180
Bibliography......Page 181
Characteristics of Plant Organs in Bioreacter Systems......Page 182
Problems of Large-Scale Culture of Plant Organs......Page 184
Root Growing in Bioreactors......Page 185
Growth of Shoots in Bioreactors......Page 188
Future Prospects......Page 190
Bibliography......Page 191
Outline......Page 192
Preparation......Page 193
Sterilization......Page 213
Charging......Page 220
Culture Initiation......Page 226
Harvesting......Page 227
Bibliography......Page 228
Bioreactor Scale-down......Page 230
Outline......Page 231
The Scale-down Approach......Page 232
Experimental Configurations for Scale-down Studies......Page 235
Bibliography......Page 238
Outline......Page 240
Geometric Considerations......Page 242
Nomenclature......Page 256
Bibliography......Page 257
Outline......Page 259
General Characteristics......Page 260
Types of Airlift Bioreactors......Page 268
Applications of Airlift Bioreactors......Page 272
Bibliography......Page 275
Introduction......Page 277
Assumptions in Continuous Culture Theory and Their Pitfalls......Page 278
The Practical Setup of a Continuous Culture......Page 279
Mathematical Description of Continuous Culture......Page 280
Applications of the Continuous Cultivation of Plant Cells......Page 282
Introduction......Page 283
Nutrient Mist Reactor Design and Operation......Page 285
Nutrient Mist Bioreactors for Micropropagation......Page 286
Nutrient Mist Bioreactors for Hairy Root Culture......Page 287
Bibliography......Page 288
When to Use Perfusion?......Page 290
Overview of Plant Cell Perfusion Bioreactor Designs......Page 291
Analysis of Design and Operating Parameters......Page 297
Bibliography......Page 301
Introduction......Page 302
The Recirculation Bioreactor......Page 305
Bibliography......Page 308
Plant-Cell Properties and Reactor Engineering......Page 310
Equipment and Operating Characteristics......Page 311
Plant-Cell Culture in Stirred Bioreactors......Page 327
Conclusions......Page 336
Bibliography......Page 337
Introduction......Page 341
Product Formation......Page 342
Biotransformations......Page 344
Bibliography......Page 345
Introduction......Page 347
Biology and Nomenclature of Mycoplasmas......Page 348
Mycoplasma Contamination of Cell Cultures......Page 350
Detection of Mycoplasma Contamination......Page 353
Elimination of Mycoplasma Contamination......Page 359
Working Protocols for Detection, Elimination, and Prevention of Mycoplasma Contamination......Page 363
Bibliography......Page 365
Introduction......Page 367
Cryopreservation Theory......Page 368
Practical Applications of Plant Cryopreservation......Page 369
Cryopreservation of Seeds and Embryos......Page 370
Bibliography......Page 373
Preparation of the Stock Plant......Page 376
Aseptic Technique and Explant Sterilization......Page 377
Callus Initiation and Maintenance......Page 379
Media......Page 380
Suspension Culture......Page 382
Growth Measurement of Suspension Cultures......Page 385
Conclusions......Page 386
Outline......Page 387
Basic Techniques......Page 388
Clonal Propagation......Page 389
Bibliography......Page 390
Chromosome Analysis......Page 392
Isoenzyme Analysis......Page 393
Evaluation of Results......Page 394
Preparation and Restriction Enzyme Digestion of High-Molecular-Weight DNA from Cell Lines......Page 396
Interpretation of DNA Fingerprint Patterns......Page 397
Viability Testing Using the MTT Assay......Page 398
Conclusions......Page 399
Bibliography......Page 400
Outline......Page 401
Master and Distribution Cell Banking System......Page 403
Ampoules......Page 404
Shipping and Distribution......Page 405
Quality Control of Cell Lines......Page 406
Cell Identification and Characterization......Page 410
Quality-Control Services......Page 411
American Type Culture Collection (ATCC) - An Historical Perspective......Page 413
Coriell Institute for Medical Research, the Home of the Coriell Cell Repositories......Page 417
DSMZ: Department of Human and Animal Cell Cultures......Page 419
Research Activity......Page 420
Cultures for Patent Deposit Purposes......Page 421
ICLC Activity......Page 422
The CABRI Project......Page 423
Quality Control at IFO Cell Bank......Page 424
Japanese Collection of Research Bioresources (JCRB Cell Bank)......Page 425
Quality Control of Cell Lines of the JCRB/HSRRB Cell Bank......Page 427
Cell Line Deposition, Restriction for Distribution, and Credit Points......Page 426
Bibliography......Page 428
The Biology of the Cell Cycle......Page 430
Control of the Cell Cycle......Page 433
Implications for Animal Cell Culture......Page 441
Bibliography......Page 444
Introduction......Page 447
Model Systems for Investigating Plant Cell Division......Page 448
Controlling Progression through the Cell Cycle......Page 450
Bibliography......Page 452
The Cell Cycle: A Brief Overview......Page 453
Chemical Methods......Page 455
Physical Methods......Page 459
Bibliography......Page 462
Outline......Page 463
Use of Enzymes for Cell Detachment......Page 464
Nonenzymatic Cell Detachment and New Methods......Page 470
Large-Scale Cell Detachment......Page 472
Cell Detachment in Serum-Free Media......Page 474
Safety Issues......Page 475
Bibliography......Page 476
Introduction......Page 478
The Epidermal Keratinocyte: A Paradigm of Cell Lineage, Differentiation, and Regeneration......Page 479
Organs Are Collections of Multiple Cell Types: The Role of Cell-Cell Interaction in a Corneal Model......Page 485
Hepatocyte Cell Biology and Cell Lineage......Page 487
Bibliography......Page 488
Introduction......Page 491
Hybrid Formation......Page 492
Hybridomas......Page 495
Conclusion......Page 496
Introduction......Page 497
Batch-Culture Kinetics......Page 498
Continuous-Culture Kinetics......Page 501
Conclusions......Page 504
Bibliography......Page 505
Outline......Page 507
The Central Metabolic Pathways......Page 508
Glutamine Metabolism......Page 512
Dynamics of Metabolism in Culture......Page 519
Bibliography......Page 524
Cell Types and Expression Systems Used to Produce Antibodies......Page 528
Reactor Systems Used for Antibody Production......Page 532
Culture Media and Culture Conditions......Page 534
Antibody Integrity and Heterogeneity......Page 536
Bibliography......Page 538
Outline......Page 541
The History of Immunomodulators......Page 542
Immune Regulators as Products......Page 543
Product Quality and Safety Issues......Page 544
Production Methods......Page 546
Process Design......Page 547
Culture Media......Page 549
Culture Media and Cell Line Development......Page 552
Process Development......Page 553
Modify Physical Conditions......Page 556
Process Monitoring......Page 558
Summary......Page 559
Bibliography......Page 560
Outline......Page 561
What Is a Gene Therapy Vector?......Page 562
Gene Therapy Targets......Page 563
Product Quality and Safety......Page 564
Quality......Page 565
Intellectual Property......Page 566
Process Development Strategy......Page 567
Vector Production......Page 568
Choice of Culture Vessels......Page 570
Perfusion Systems......Page 572
Comparison of Culture Methods for Vector Production......Page 575
Maximization......Page 576
Bibliography......Page 577
Outline......Page 578
Factors That Affect Genetic Stability of Endogenous Genes......Page 579
Genotypic and Phenotypic Stability of Recombinant Cell Lines......Page 582
Consequences of Genetic Instability on Recombinant Protein Quality......Page 584
Genotypic Characterization and Validation of Genetic Stability......Page 588
Bibliography......Page 590
Cell Structure and Motion, Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement......Page 593
The Cytoskeleton......Page 594
Microtubules......Page 595
Actin Filaments......Page 597
Intermediate Filaments......Page 599
Bibliography......Page 601
Physical Forces during Cell Binding and Aggregation......Page 603
Cell Junctions......Page 605
Cell Adhesion Receptors......Page 607
Extracellular Matrix......Page 609
Cell Adhesion and Intracellular Signalling......Page 614
Biotechnological Significance of Cellular Adhesion......Page 615
Bibliography......Page 617
Introduction......Page 618
Structure of Cell-Surface Receptors......Page 619
Receptor Activation......Page 621
Protein: Protein Interacting Domains......Page 624
Summary and Prospectus......Page 629
Bibliography......Page 630
Outline......Page 631
Mechanisms of Cellular Transformation......Page 632
Characteristics of Transformed Cells......Page 634
Acknowledgments......Page 641
Bibliography......Page 642
General Points for Facility Design......Page 643
Design of HVAC System Parameters......Page 654
Bibliography......Page 660
Outline......Page 661
Introduction......Page 662
Morphological Assays of Apoptosis......Page 663
Biochemical Markers of Apoptosis......Page 664
Flow Cytometric Analysis of Cell Death......Page 666
Appendix I: Determination of Apoptotic Morphology......Page 670
Appendix III: Assay of PARP Cleavage by Western Blotting......Page 671
Appendix IV: Percoll Gradient Fractionation of Viable and Apoptotic Cells......Page 672
Appendix VI: Tunel or Terminal Deoxynucleotidyl Transferase (TdT) Assay......Page 673
Appendix VII: Two-Color Flow Cytometric Analysis of Intracellular pH and Hoechst 33342 Uptake......Page 674
Bibliography......Page 675
Introduction and Perspective......Page 677
Light Microscopy......Page 678
Scanning-Probe Near-Field Microscopes......Page 693
Video Microscopy and Image Processing......Page 694
Electron Microscopes......Page 695
Web Sites......Page 700
Bibliography......Page 701
Biotic Contamination Management in Tissue Culture......Page 705
Principles of Certified Stock Production......Page 707
Plant Disease Detection and Diagnosis......Page 708
Diagnostic Procedures......Page 709
Elimination of Pathogens from Stock Plants......Page 711
Conclusions......Page 712
Bibliography......Page 713
Historical Perspectives......Page 715
Regulatory Issues......Page 716
Examples of Viral Contaminants......Page 718
Detection of Viral Contaminants in Cell Lines......Page 719
Testing Raw Materials......Page 728
Detection of Mycoplasmas......Page 730
Bacteria and Fungi......Page 732
Statistical Analysis......Page 733
Detection of Prions......Page 735
Bibliography......Page 737
Micropropagation......Page 740
Callus and Cell Suspension......Page 741
Limitations: Contamination, Hyperhydricity, Recalcitrance and Oxidative Browning......Page 742
Cryopreservation......Page 743
Introduction......Page 744
Resistance from R Genes......Page 745
Resistance from Antimicrobial Peptides and Proteins......Page 747
Bibliography......Page 748
Somatic Embryogenesis from Plant Cells in Culture......Page 749
Androgenesis and Gynogenesis......Page 751
Bibliography......Page 753
Outline......Page 754
Methods of Cell Separation and Enrichment......Page 755
Physical and Biological Methods of Cell Separation......Page 757
Applications of Purification and Enrichment Techniques for Diverse Cell Types by Implementing a Combination of Methods......Page 764
Bibliography......Page 767
Washing Reusable Glassware......Page 770
Biosafety Cabinets......Page 771
Incubators......Page 772
Laboratory-Scale Culture Vessels......Page 774
Centrifugation......Page 777
Liquid Nitrogen Storage......Page 778
Hemocytometer......Page 779
Bibliography......Page 781
Outline......Page 782
Ethics Overview......Page 783
Ethics as the Set Point in a Control System Modulating Human Behaviour......Page 784
Ethical Systems......Page 785
Ethics, Science, and Engineering......Page 786
Ethical Issues Common to Both Animal and Plant Cell Technology......Page 787
Ethical Issues Arising from Plant Cell Technology......Page 790
Ethical Issues in Animal Cell Technology: Overview......Page 795
Ethics and Virus Vaccines......Page 796
Ethics and Monoclonal Antibodies......Page 804
Ethics and Hormone Treatments......Page 805
Ethics and Enzymes......Page 807
Ethical Issues Raised by the Possibilities of Cloning Humans......Page 809
Bibliography......Page 812
Analysis and Sorting of Plant Protoplasts......Page 814
Analysis of Nuclear DNA Content......Page 815
Concluding Remarks......Page 816
Introduction......Page 817
Metabolic Fluxes in Cultured Mammalian Cells: Some Lessons from Tumor Cell Physiology......Page 818
Flux-Balance Models: Methods......Page 819
Flux-Balance Models: Applications in Mammalian Cell Culture......Page 824
Conclusion......Page 825
Bibliography......Page 826
Outline......Page 827
Introduction......Page 828
Overview of Animal Cell Technology......Page 829
Plasmid Expression Vectors for Animal Cells......Page 831
Other Direct Transfer Vectors for Animal Cells......Page 835
Direct DNA Transfer to Animal Cells......Page 839
Transfection Methods......Page 848
Viral Expression Vectors for Animal Cells......Page 853
Expression Parameters and Optimization - Vector and Insert Sequences......Page 870
Expression Parameters and Optimization - Consequences of Transgene Integration......Page 880
Recombination-Based Methodology and Gene Inhibition Strategy......Page 888
The Production of Transgenic Mammals from Manipulated Cells......Page 898
Uses for Transgenic Animals......Page 901
Nuclear Transfer Technology......Page 904
Bibliography......Page 909
Introduction......Page 915
Types of in vitro Cultures......Page 916
Maintenance......Page 918
Banking Issues......Page 921
Bibliography......Page 922
Introduction......Page 923
Influence of Product Recovery on Bioreactor Design and Operation......Page 924
Principles of Bioreactor Operation......Page 928
Principles for Bioreactor Design and Scaleup......Page 932
Bibliography......Page 936
Outline......Page 938
Anther Culture......Page 939
Ovule Culture......Page 941
Introduction......Page 942
Resistance to Imidazolinone, Sulfonyl Urea, and Related Herbicides......Page 943
Resistance to Glutamine Synthetase Inhibitor Herbicides......Page 944
Resistance to Photosystem II Inhibiting Herbicides......Page 945
Glyphosate-Resistant Plants......Page 946
Bibliography......Page 948
Outline......Page 950
Developments in Microscopy......Page 951
Cells as the Basic Units of Living Beings......Page 953
Life Then Cells or Cells Then Life?......Page 954
What Can Cells (as Such) Bring to the Table?......Page 955
What Can a Primordial Environment Offer?......Page 956
Introducing Life......Page 957
Philosophical Issues......Page 959
A Multiphasic Process......Page 961
Ideas and Experiments: Animal Cells in the Solution of Controversies......Page 962
Time for a Reconsideration?......Page 963
A Home from Home......Page 964
Environments for Cell Culturists......Page 966
Choosing Appropriate Tools......Page 967
Reflections......Page 968
Bibliography......Page 969
The Preparation......Page 971
Study Monitoring and Follow-up......Page 974
Study Analysis, Report, and Publications......Page 975
Introduction......Page 976
Fundamental Considerations......Page 977
Applications......Page 979
Bibliography......Page 983
Vital Stains......Page 985
Tetrazolium Assay......Page 986
Lactate Dehydrogenase Determination......Page 987
Rate of DNA Synthesis......Page 988
Bibliography......Page 989
Introduction: The Cell Membrane: Barrier and Bridge......Page 990
Basic Architecture of the Cell Membrane: A Transport-Minded View......Page 992
Transport across the Plasma Membrane: General Properties......Page 994
Channels......Page 999
Carriers......Page 1006
Pumps......Page 1009
Appendix......Page 1012
Bibliography......Page 1014
Plant Regeneration in Cell, Tissue, and Organ Cultures......Page 1017
The Practice of Micropropagation......Page 1020
Commercialization and Economic Considerations......Page 1026
Current Issues and Progression of Micropropagation......Page 1027
Bibliography......Page 1029
Terminology......Page 1031
Causes......Page 1032
Introduction......Page 1035
Protoplast Culture......Page 1036
Concluding Remarks......Page 1037
Introduction......Page 1038
Life Cycle of P. Patens......Page 1039
FITC Labeling of Antibodies......Page 1042
Transgenic Moss......Page 1043
Evidence for Gene Targeting......Page 1044
Bibliography......Page 1045
Introduction......Page 1047
Analysis of Cell Density......Page 1048
Analysis of Medium Components......Page 1049
Analysis of Metabolic End Products......Page 1056
Analysis of Other Substances and Parameters......Page 1058
Bibliography......Page 1060
Introduction......Page 1062
Competitive and Noncompetitive Immunoassays; Radioimmunoassay......Page 1063
Enzyme Immunoassays......Page 1064
Fluorescence Immunoassay......Page 1066
Immunoaffinity Chromatography; Capillary Electrophoretic Immunoassays......Page 1067
Miscellaneous Immunoassays......Page 1068
Bibliography......Page 1069
Aseptic Sampling Devices......Page 1071
Cell Characterization......Page 1074
On-Line Monitoring of the Cell's Environment......Page 1075
Bibliography......Page 1079
Uptake of Sugars, Nitrogen and Phosphate......Page 1082
Mechanisms of Membrane Transport Systems......Page 1084
Measurement and Control of Cytoplasmic pH......Page 1088
Introduction......Page 1090
Growth of Plant Cells and Tissue in a Culture Bag......Page 1091
Production of Metabolites in Culture Bags......Page 1092
Bibliography......Page 1093
Solvent Addition......Page 1094
Addition of Surfactants......Page 1095
Bibliography......Page 1096
Laboratory Facilities......Page 1097
Plant Cell Culture Media......Page 1098
Cell Culture Systems......Page 1104
Bibliography......Page 1106
Background......Page 1108
Specific Uses......Page 1110
Bibliography......Page 1112
Light......Page 1113
Temperature......Page 1114
Dissolved Oxygen......Page 1115
Foam......Page 1116
Agitation......Page 1117
Bibliography......Page 1118
Introduction......Page 1119
Manipulation of Culture Conditions......Page 1120
Cell Selection......Page 1122
Induction of Differentiation in Plant Cell Cultures......Page 1123
Bioconversion......Page 1124
Genetic Approaches......Page 1128
Conclusions......Page 1130
Bibliography......Page 1131
Screening......Page 1134
Methods of Culturing Single Cells......Page 1136
Selection......Page 1137
Bibliography......Page 1138
Isolation of Plant Protoplasts......Page 1139
Culture of Isolated Plant Protoplasts......Page 1141
Innovative Approaches to Protoplast Culture......Page 1142
Exploitation of Protoplast-to-Plant Systems: Somatic and Gametosomatic Hybridization......Page 1143
Transformation by DNA Uptake into Isolated Protoplasts......Page 1144
Somaclonal Variation: A Simple Form of Genetic Engineering?......Page 1145
Miscellaneous Studies with Plant Protoplasts......Page 1146
Bibliography......Page 1147
The Regulatory Process......Page 1149
Invention or Discovery......Page 1151
Product Design/Process Development......Page 1153
Preclinical Studies......Page 1158
IND/Clinical Studies......Page 1159
CMC (Chemistry, Manufacturing, and Controls) Studies......Page 1160
License Application and Review......Page 1161
Bibliography......Page 1162
A Brief History of PCD/Apoptosis......Page 1165
Biological Features of Apoptosis......Page 1166
Genetic Regulation of Apoptosis......Page 1167
Survival Factors......Page 1169
Apoptosis in Cell Culture: Small to Large Scale......Page 1170
Strategies for Manipulation......Page 1171
Conclusions and Future Perspectives......Page 1172
Bibliography......Page 1173
Receptor Recruitment into Clathrin-Coated Pits......Page 1174
Molecular Mechanisms of Internalization......Page 1175
Pathway through Endosomal Compartments......Page 1177
Mechanism of Receptor Sorting in Endosomes......Page 1178
Other Types of Signaling Receptors......Page 1179
Bibliography......Page 1180
Introduction......Page 1182
Polypeptide Production......Page 1183
The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Polypeptide Folding and Modification......Page 1185
The Golgi Apparatus......Page 1192
Bibliography......Page 1195
Why Fuse Isolated Plant Protoplasts?......Page 1198
Products of Protoplast Fusion and the Selection of Somatic Hybrid Tissues and Plants......Page 1199
Characterization of Somatic Hybrid Plants......Page 1201
Concluding Remarks......Page 1202
Bibliography......Page 1203
Steroid Receptors and Gene Regulation......Page 1205
Nitric Oxide: cGMP-Independent Signaling......Page 1208
Crosstalk between Nitric Oxide and Steroid Signaling......Page 1209
Bibliography......Page 1210
Common Characteristics of Macroalgal Suspension Cultures......Page 1212
Suspension Culture Development Techniques......Page 1216
Bioreactor Cultivation of Macroalgal Suspension Cultures......Page 1220
Acknowledgments......Page 1222
Introduction......Page 1223
Sources of Variation......Page 1224
Bibliography......Page 1225
Introduction......Page 1227
Sterilization by Heat......Page 1228
Filtration......Page 1232
Fumigation......Page 1235
Ultraviolet Light......Page 1236
Liquid Disinfectants......Page 1237
Virus Testing and Elimination......Page 1238
Regulatory and Safety Issues......Page 1240
Bibliography......Page 1242
Toxin Modes of Action......Page 1243
Approaches to Developing Toxin-Resistant Plants......Page 1247
Bibliography......Page 1248
Outline......Page 1249
Structure of Eukaryotic Promoters and Regulation of Transcription......Page 1250
3'UTR......Page 1257
Mechanism of Translation Initiation and Its Regulation......Page 1259
Recombinant Cistrons......Page 1264
Bibliography......Page 1270
Introduction......Page 1275
Direct Gene Transfer into Protoplasts......Page 1277
Direct Gene Transfer across the Cell Wall without Carrier Particles......Page 1278
Conclusions and Remaining Problems......Page 1279
Bibliography......Page 1280
History of the Use of Blood Products......Page 1283
Description of Blood-Borne Viruses......Page 1284
The Ideal Viral Inactivation Method......Page 1285
Viral Inactivation Procedures for Blood Cells......Page 1286
Methods for Removing Viruses from Plasma Products......Page 1287
Viral Inactivation Procedures for Plasma Products......Page 1288
Summary......Page 1290
Bibliography......Page 1291
Outline......Page 1293
Mechanics of Viral Vaccine Production......Page 1294
Host Cell Substrate and Cell Growth......Page 1295
Viral Growth......Page 1298
Viral Processing......Page 1303
Vaccines and Examples of Processes......Page 1306
Future Vaccine Processes......Page 1318
Bibliography......Page 1319
Introduction......Page 1331
History and Challenge......Page 1332
The Cell Yield Concept......Page 1333
Kinetic Model of Viral Infection: Synchronous Infection......Page 1335
Kinetic Model of Viral Infection: Asynchronous Infection......Page 1340
Using the Model......Page 1342
Outline......Page 1344
Production of Virus Free Plants through Tissue Culture......Page 1345
Culture of Meristematic Tissue......Page 1346
Bibliography......Page 1347
A......Page 1348
B......Page 1354
C......Page 1357
D......Page 1367
E......Page 1370
F......Page 1373
G......Page 1375
H......Page 1380
I......Page 1384
K......Page 1387
L......Page 1388
M......Page 1389
N......Page 1395
O......Page 1397
P......Page 1398
R......Page 1407
S......Page 1410
T......Page 1415
V......Page 1419
W......Page 1421
Z......Page 1422