The Digital Signal Processing Handbook

78.PDF......Page 0
Contents......Page 1
Preface......Page 4
VijayK.Madisetti......Page 6
DouglasB.Williams......Page 7
Introduction......Page 8
Fourier Series Representation of Continuous Timechaptocbreak Periodic Signals......Page 9
Exponential Fourier Series......Page 10
The Trigonometric Fourier Series......Page 11
Convergence of the Fourier Series......Page 13
The Classical Fourier Transform for Continuous Time Signals......Page 14
Fourier Spectrum of the Continuous Time Sampling Model......Page 15
Fourier Transform of Periodic Continuous Time Signals......Page 17
The Discrete Time Fourier Transform......Page 18
Properties of the Discrete Time Fourier Transform......Page 20
Relationship between the Continuous and Discrete Time Spectra......Page 21
The Discrete Fourier Transform......Page 22
Properties of the Discrete Fourier Series......Page 23
Fourier Block Processing in Real-Time Filtering Applications......Page 24
Fast Fourier Transform Algorithms......Page 25
Fast Fourier Transform in Spectral Analysis......Page 28
Finite Impulse Response Digital Filter Design......Page 31
Fourier Analysis of Ideal and Practical Digital-to-Analog Conversion......Page 32
Summary......Page 34
Differential Equations......Page 37
Classical Solution......Page 39
Method of Convolution......Page 47
Difference Equations......Page 49
Initial Conditions and Iterative Solution......Page 50
Classical Solution......Page 52
Method of Convolution......Page 57
Introduction......Page 60
Fixed-Point Quantization Errors......Page 61
Floating-Point Quantization Errors......Page 63
Roundoff Noise in FIR Filters......Page 64
Roundoff Noise in Fixed-Point IIR Filters......Page 65
Roundoff Noise in Floating-Point IIR Filters......Page 68
Limit Cycles......Page 70
Overflow Oscillations......Page 72
Coefficient Quantization Error......Page 73
Realization Considerations......Page 76
Introduction......Page 78
Definition......Page 79
Fundamental Domains and Cosets......Page 81
The Continuous Space-Time Fourier Transform......Page 82
Sampling and Periodizing......Page 84
The Discrete Fourier Transform......Page 86
Combined Spatial and Frequency Sampling......Page 88
Lattice Chains......Page 89
Change of Variables......Page 90
An Extended Example: HDTV-to-SDTV Conversion......Page 93
Conclusions......Page 95
Introduction......Page 100
Fundamentals of A/D and D/A Conversion......Page 101
Nonideal A/D and D/A Converters......Page 102
Digital-to-Analog Converter Architecture......Page 104
Pipelined A/D Converter......Page 105
Cyclic A/D Converter......Page 107
Delta-Sigma Oversampling Converter......Page 108
Delta-Sigma A/D Converter Architecture......Page 109
Introduction......Page 115
Quantizer and Encoder Definitions......Page 116
Distortion Measure......Page 117
Lloyd-Max Quantizers......Page 118
Linde-Buzo-Gray Algorithm......Page 119
Practical Issues......Page 121
Multistage VQ......Page 123
Split VQ......Page 124
Predictive Speech Coding......Page 125
Speaker Identification......Page 126
Summary......Page 128
Fast Fourier Transforms: A Tutorial Review and a State of the Art......Page 130
Introduction......Page 131
From Gauss to the Cooley-Tukey FFT......Page 132
Development of the Twiddle Factor FFT......Page 133
FFTs Without Twiddle Factors......Page 134
State of the Art......Page 135
Motivation (or: why dividing is also conquering)......Page 136
The Cooley-Tukey Mapping......Page 138
Radix-2 and Radix-4 Algorithms......Page 140
Split-Radix Algorithm......Page 145
Remarks on FFTs with Twiddle Factors......Page 147
Basic Tools......Page 148
Winograd's Fourier Transform Algorithm (WFTA)nobreakspace {}cite {03x01.cit56}......Page 155
Remarks on FFTs Without Twiddle Factors......Page 157
Multiplicative Complexity......Page 158
Additive Complexity......Page 160
In-Place Computation......Page 161
Particular Cases and Related Transforms......Page 162
DFT Algorithms for Real Data......Page 163
Related Transforms......Page 164
Multidimensional Transforms......Page 165
Row-Column Algorithms......Page 166
Vector-Radix Algorithms......Page 167
Polynomial Transform......Page 168
General Purpose Computers......Page 171
VLSI......Page 172
Conclusion......Page 173
Introduction......Page 180
Overlap-Add......Page 181
Use of the Overlap Methods......Page 182
Block Convolution......Page 183
Block Recursion......Page 185
Short and Medium Length Convolution......Page 186
The Toom-Cook Method......Page 187
Winograd Short Convolution Algorithm......Page 188
The Split-Nesting Algorithm......Page 190
Multirate Methods for Running Convolution......Page 191
Convolution in Subbands......Page 193
Convolution is Two Dimensional......Page 194
Distributed Arithmetic by Table Lookup......Page 195
Number Theoretic Transforms......Page 196
Special Low-Multiply Filter Structures......Page 198
Introduction......Page 201
One-Dimensional DFTs......Page 206
Multidimensional DFTs......Page 207
Nonstandard Models and Problems......Page 208
Strassen Algorithm......Page 211
Divide-and-Conquer......Page 212
Arbitrary Precision Approximation (APA) Algorithms......Page 213
Number Theoretic Transform (NTT) Based Algorithms......Page 214
Overview......Page 215
The Wavelet Transform......Page 216
Wavelet Representations of Integral Operators......Page 217
Heuristic Interpretation of Wavelet Sparsification......Page 218
Introduction......Page 220
Creating the Design Specifications......Page 221
Specs Derived from Analog Filtering......Page 223
Specifying an Error Measure......Page 224
FIR Characteristics......Page 225
IIR Characteristics......Page 227
Realizing the Designed Filter......Page 228
Realizing IIR Filters......Page 229
Quantization: Finite Wordlength Effect......Page 230
Design by Windowing......Page 231
Optimal Square Error Design......Page 238
Equiripple Optimal Chebyshev Filter Design......Page 241
IIR Design Methods......Page 250
Bilinear Transformation Method......Page 251
Classical IIR Filter Types......Page 252
Maximally Flat Real Symmetric FIR Filters......Page 256
The Affine Filter Structure......Page 261
Optimal Design of FIR Filters with Arbitrary Magnitude and Phase......Page 263
Design of Minimum-Phase FIR Filters......Page 275
Delay Variation of Maximally Flat FIR Filters......Page 278
Combining Criteria in FIR Filter Design......Page 282
Allpass (Phase-Only) IIR Filter Design......Page 290
Magnitude and Phase Approximation......Page 291
Model Order Reduction......Page 292
Filter Design: Graphical User Interface (GUI)......Page 293
Band Edges and Ripples......Page 294
Frequency Scaling......Page 295
Filter Implementation......Page 296
Cascade of Second-Order Sections......Page 298
Scaling for Fixed-Point......Page 299
Comments and Summary......Page 303
Introduction......Page 312
Detector Design Strategies......Page 313
Likelihood Ratio Test......Page 314
Signal Classification......Page 316
The Linear Multivariate Gaussian Model......Page 317
Signal Detection: Known Gains......Page 318
Signal Detection: Unknown Gains......Page 319
Spatio-Temporal Signals......Page 320
Detection: Unknown Gains and Unknown Spatial Covariance......Page 321
Classifying Individual Signals......Page 322
Classifying Presence of Multiple Signals......Page 324
Introduction......Page 326
Random Processes......Page 327
Spectra of Deterministic Signals......Page 328
Spectra of Random Processes......Page 330
The Problem of Power Spectrum Estimation......Page 331
Periodogram......Page 332
The Welch Method......Page 334
Blackman-Tukey Method......Page 335
Minimum Variance Spectrum Estimator......Page 336
Multiwindow Spectrum Estimator......Page 337
Parametric Spectrum Estimation......Page 338
Spectrum Estimation Based on Autoregressive Models......Page 339
Spectrum Estimation Based on Moving Average Models......Page 340
Spectrum Estimation Based on Autoregressive Moving Average Models......Page 341
Pisarenko Harmonic Decomposition Method......Page 342
Multiple Signal Classification (MUSIC)......Page 344
Recent Developments......Page 345
Introduction......Page 347
Least-Squares Estimation......Page 348
Properties of Estimators......Page 350
Best Linear Unbiased Estimation......Page 351
Mean-Squared Estimation of Random Parameters......Page 352
The Basic State-Variable Model......Page 354
Prediction......Page 356
Filtering (the Kalman Filter)......Page 357
Smoothing......Page 359
Digital Wiener Filtering......Page 360
Linear Prediction in DSP, and Kalman Filtering......Page 361
Extended Kalman Filter......Page 362
Introduction......Page 367
Gaussianity, Linearity, and Stationarity Tests......Page 369
Gaussianity Tests......Page 370
Linearity Tests......Page 372
Order Selection......Page 373
Model Validation......Page 374
Confidence Intervals......Page 375
Middleton Class A Noise......Page 376
Stable Noise Distribution......Page 377
Concluding Remarks......Page 378
Introduction......Page 380
Definitions, Properties, Representations......Page 381
Estimation, Time-Frequency Links, Testing......Page 388
Estimating Cyclic Statistics......Page 389
Links with Time-Frequency Representations......Page 390
Testing for Cyclostationarity......Page 391
CS Signals and CS-Inducing Operations......Page 392
Amplitude Modulation......Page 393
Time Index Modulation......Page 394
Fractional Sampling and Multivariate/Multirate Processing......Page 395
Periodically Varying Systems......Page 396
Application Areas......Page 398
CS Signal Extraction......Page 401
Identification and Modeling......Page 403
Concluding Remarks......Page 408
What is an Adaptive Filter?......Page 412
Filter Structures......Page 413
The Task of an Adaptive Filter......Page 416
System Identification......Page 417
Inverse Modeling......Page 419
Linear Prediction......Page 421
Feedforward Control......Page 422
The Mean-Squared Error Cost Function......Page 423
The Wiener Solution......Page 424
The LMS Algorithm......Page 425
Other Stochastic Gradient Algorithms......Page 426
System Identification Example......Page 427
Conclusions......Page 429
Introduction......Page 431
Characterizing the Performance of Adaptive Filters......Page 432
Statistical Models for the Input Signal......Page 433
The Independence Assumptions......Page 435
Useful Definitions......Page 436
Mean Analysis......Page 437
Mean-Square Analysis......Page 441
Basic Criteria for Performance......Page 443
Identifying Stationary Systems......Page 445
Tracking Time-Varying Systems......Page 446
Normalized Step Sizes......Page 447
Other Time-Varying Step Size Methods......Page 448
Analysis of Other Adaptive Filters......Page 449
Conclusions......Page 450
Motivation and Example......Page 452
Adaptive Filter Structure......Page 453
Performance and Robustness Issues......Page 454
Robust Adaptive Filtering......Page 455
Energy Bounds and Passivity Relations......Page 458
Min-Max Optimality of Adaptive Gradient Algorithms......Page 459
Comparison of LMS and RLS Algorithms......Page 460
Time-Domain Analysis......Page 461
l2-Stability and the Small Gain Condition......Page 462
Energy Propagation in the Feedback Cascade......Page 464
A Deterministic Convergence Analysis......Page 465
Filtered-Error Gradient Algorithms......Page 466
References and Concluding Remarks......Page 469
Recursive Least-Squares Adaptive Filters......Page 472
Array Algorithms......Page 474
Elementary Hyperbolic Rotations......Page 475
Square-Root-Free and Householder Transformations......Page 476
A Numerical Example......Page 477
The Least-Squares Problem......Page 478
Statistical Interpretation......Page 479
The Regularized Least-Squares Problem......Page 480
Statistical Interpretation......Page 481
The Recursive Least-Squares Problem......Page 482
Reducing to the Regularized Form......Page 483
Time Updates......Page 484
Estimation Errors and the Conversion Factor......Page 485
RLS Algorithms in Array Forms......Page 486
The Inverse QR Algorithm......Page 487
The QR Algorithm......Page 490
The Prewindowed Case......Page 492
A Fast Array Algorithm......Page 493
The Fast Transversal Filter......Page 495
Order-Recursive Filters......Page 496
Joint Process Estimation......Page 497
The Backward Prediction Error Vectors......Page 499
The Forward Prediction Error Vectors......Page 501
A Nonunity Forgetting Factor......Page 503
The QRD Least-Squares Lattice Filter......Page 505
The Filtering or Joint Process Array......Page 507
Concluding Remarks......Page 508
Transform Domain Adaptive Filtering......Page 511
LMS Adaptive Filter Theory......Page 512
Orthogonalization and Power Normalization......Page 515
Convergence of the Transform Domain Adaptive Filter......Page 517
Discussion and Examples......Page 519
Quasi-Newton Adaptive Algorithms......Page 520
A Fast Quasi-Newton Algorithm......Page 522
The 2-D Transform Domain Adaptive Filter......Page 523
Block-Based Adaptive Filters......Page 525
Comparison of the Constrained and Unconstrained Frequency Domain Block-LMS Adaptive Algorithms......Page 527
Examples and Discussion......Page 530
Introduction......Page 533
The System Identification Framework for Adaptive IIR Filtering......Page 534
Some Preliminaries......Page 536
The LMS and LS Equation Error Algorithms......Page 537
Instrumental Variable Algorithms......Page 539
Equation Error Algorithms with Unit Norm Constraints......Page 540
Gradient-Descent Algorithms......Page 542
Output Error Algorithms Based on Stability Theory......Page 545
The Steiglitz-McBride Family of Algorithms......Page 547
Alternate Parametrizations......Page 550
Conclusions......Page 551
Introduction......Page 553
Channel Equalization in QAM Data Communication Systems......Page 554
Decision-Directed Adaptive Channel Equalizer......Page 556
Basic Facts on Blind Adaptive Equalization......Page 557
Adaptive Algorithms and Notations......Page 558
Mean Cost Functions and Associated Algorithms......Page 559
BGR Extensions of Sato Algorithm......Page 560
Stop-and-Go Algorithms......Page 561
Shalvi and Weinstein Algorithms......Page 562
Summary......Page 563
A Common Analysis Approach......Page 564
Initialization Issues......Page 565
Linearly Constrained Equalizer With Convex Cost......Page 566
Fractionally Spaced Blind Equalizers......Page 567
Concluding Remarks......Page 569
Introduction......Page 572
Formulation of the Signal Recovery Problem......Page 573
Prolate Spheroidal Wavefunctions......Page 575
Wiener Filtering......Page 577
The Pseudoinverse Solution......Page 578
Regularization Techniques......Page 580
The POCS Framework......Page 581
Row-Based Methods......Page 583
Block-Based Methods......Page 585
Image Restoration Using POCS......Page 586
The Reconstruction Problem......Page 594
Filtered Backprojection (FBP)......Page 595
The Linogram Method......Page 596
Series Expansion Methods......Page 598
Algebraic Reconstruction Techniques (ART)......Page 599
Expectation Maximization (EM)......Page 600
Comparison of the Performance of Algorithms......Page 601
Introduction......Page 605
Speech Production and Spectrum-Related Parameterization......Page 606
Template-Based Speech Processing......Page 607
Robust Speech Processing......Page 608
Affine Transform......Page 611
Deterministic Convolutional Channel as a Linear Transform......Page 612
Additive Noise as a Linear Transform......Page 614
Affine Transform of Cepstral Coefficients......Page 616
Parameters of Affine Transform......Page 618
Correspondence of Cepstral Vectors......Page 620
Background......Page 623
Inverse Problems in DSP......Page 624
Analogies with Statistical Mechanics......Page 625
Combinatorial Optimization......Page 626
Gibbs' Distribution......Page 627
The Simulated Annealing Procedure......Page 628
Introduction......Page 633
The EM Algorithm......Page 634
Example: A Simple MRF......Page 635
Conditional Expectation Calculations......Page 638
Convergence Problem......Page 640
Single Channel Blur Identification and Image Restoration......Page 642
Problem Formulation......Page 648
The E-Step......Page 649
The M-Step......Page 650
Comments on the Choice of Initial Conditions......Page 651
Summary and Conclusion......Page 652
Introduction......Page 658
Wave Propagation......Page 659
Spatial Sampling......Page 660
Narrowband Arrays......Page 661
Look-Direction Constraint......Page 662
Broadband Arrays......Page 663
Narrowband Arrays......Page 666
Row-Action Projection Method......Page 667
Simulation Results......Page 668
Broadband Results......Page 669
Summary......Page 673
Discrete-Time Intersymbol Interference Channel Model......Page 676
Regularization......Page 678
Discrete-Time Adaptive Filtering......Page 680
Adaptive Algorithm Recapitulation......Page 681
Numerical Results......Page 682
Conclusion......Page 684
Introduction: Dereverberation Using Microphone Arrays......Page 685
Simple Delay-and-Sum Beamformers......Page 687
A Brief Look at Adaptive Arrays......Page 689
Constrained Adaptive Beamforming Formulated as an Inverse Problem......Page 692
Matched Filtering......Page 695
Diophantine Inverse Filtering Using the Multiple Input-Output (MINT) Model......Page 698
Results......Page 699
Speaker Identification......Page 701
Summary......Page 705
Introduction......Page 707
Image Formation......Page 711
Side-Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR)......Page 712
Unfocused Synthetic Aperture Radar......Page 713
Focused Synthetic Aperture Radar......Page 714
SAR Image Enhancement......Page 715
Automatic Object Detection and Classification in SAR Imagery......Page 717
Introduction......Page 721
Iterative Recovery Algorithms......Page 722
Basic Iterative Restoration Algorithm......Page 723
Convergence......Page 724
Matrix-Vector Formulation......Page 726
Least-Squares Iteration......Page 727
Basic Iteration......Page 728
Use of Constraints......Page 729
Class of Higher Order Iterative Algorithms......Page 730
Ill-Posed Problems and Regularization Theory......Page 731
Constrained Minimization Regularization Approaches......Page 732
Iteration Adaptive Image Restoration Algorithms......Page 734
Discussion......Page 736
Filter Banks and Wavelets......Page 740
Deriving Continuous-Time Bases From Discrete-Time Ones......Page 743
Two-Channel Filter Banks and Wavelets......Page 746
Structure of Two-Channel Filter Banks......Page 748
Putting the Pieces Together......Page 751
Filter Bank Design......Page 755
Filter Bank Equations......Page 756
The AC Matrix......Page 758
Spectral Factorization......Page 759
Lattice Implementations......Page 760
Time-Domain Design......Page 761
Finite Field Filter Banks......Page 764
Nonlinear Filter Banks......Page 767
Introduction......Page 773
Analysis of Time-Varying Filter Banks......Page 774
Time-Varying Filter Bank Design Techniques......Page 777
Approach I: Intermediate Analysis-Synthesis (IAS)......Page 778
Approach II: Instantaneous Transform Switching (ITS)......Page 781
Conclusion......Page 783
Orthogonal Block Transforms......Page 786
Orthogonal Lapped Transforms......Page 787
Generalized Linear-Phase Lapped Orthogonal Transform (GenLOT)......Page 790
Remarks......Page 791
Introduction......Page 795
Pitch......Page 797
Threshold of Hearing......Page 798
Differential Threshold......Page 799
Masked Threshold......Page 800
Summary of Relevant Psychophysical Data......Page 801
Loudness......Page 802
Differential Thresholds......Page 806
Masking......Page 807
Conclusions......Page 817
Introduction......Page 821
Key Technologies in Audio Coding......Page 823
Auditory Masking and Perceptual Coding......Page 824
Frequency Domain Coding......Page 827
Window Switching......Page 828
MPEG-1/Audio Coding......Page 830
The Basics......Page 831
Layers I and II......Page 833
Layer III......Page 835
Frame and Multiplex Structure......Page 837
Subjective Quality......Page 838
MPEG-2/Audio Multichannel Coding......Page 839
Backward-Compatible (BC) MPEG-2/Audio Coding......Page 840
Advanced/MPEG-2/Audio Coding (AAC)......Page 842
Simulcast Transmission......Page 843
MPEG-4/Audio Coding......Page 844
Applications......Page 845
Conclusions......Page 846
Overview......Page 850
Bit Stream Syntax......Page 854
Analysis/Synthesis Filterbank......Page 855
Window Design......Page 856
Transform Equations......Page 857
Spectral Envelope......Page 858
Channel Coupling......Page 861
Rematrixing......Page 863
Parametric Bit Allocation......Page 864
Spreading Function Shape......Page 865
Algorithm Description......Page 866
Quantization and Coding......Page 869
Error Detection......Page 870
Introduction......Page 872
Applications and Test Results......Page 874
Perceptual Coding......Page 875
PAC Structure......Page 877
The EPAC Filterbank and Structure......Page 879
Perceptual Modeling......Page 882
MS vs. LR Switching......Page 884
Noiseless Compression......Page 885
Filterbank and Psychoacoustic Model......Page 886
The Composite Coding Methods......Page 887
Decoder Complexity......Page 888
Conclusions......Page 889
Introduction......Page 891
Concept......Page 892
Actual Converters......Page 894
Film Format......Page 897
Playback System for Digital Sound......Page 898
The SDDS Error Correction Technique......Page 899
Features of the SDDS System......Page 900
Abstract......Page 901
Coder Scheme......Page 903
ATRAC......Page 906
ATRAC2......Page 908
Speech Sounds......Page 913
Speech Displays......Page 914
Geometry of the Vocal and Nasal Tracts......Page 915
Acoustical Properties of the Vocal and Nasal Tracts......Page 916
Simplifying Assumptions......Page 917
Wave Propagation in the Vocal Tract......Page 918
The Lossless Case......Page 919
Inclusion of Losses......Page 920
Chain Matrices......Page 921
Nasal Coupling......Page 923
Periodic Excitation......Page 924
Turbulent Excitation......Page 929
Specification of Parameters......Page 931
Synthesis......Page 932
Examples of Applications......Page 934
Speech Coder Attributes......Page 935
The LPC Speech Production Model......Page 937
Model-Based Speech Coders......Page 939
Time Domain Waveform-Following Speech Coders......Page 941
Frequency Domain Waveform-Following Speech Coders......Page 943
Current Standards......Page 944
Current ITU Waveform Signal Coders......Page 945
ITU Linear Prediction Analysis-by-Synthesis Speech Coders......Page 946
Digital Cellular Speech Coding Standards......Page 947
Secure Voice Standards......Page 948
Performance......Page 949
Introduction......Page 953
Text Preprocessing......Page 955
Word Pronunciation......Page 956
Segmental Durations......Page 958
Intonation......Page 959
Speech Synthesis......Page 960
The Future of TTS......Page 962
Introduction......Page 985
Characterization of Speech Recognition Systems......Page 986
``Pattern-Matching'' Approach cite {10x05.Ita75}......Page 987
Speech Recognition by Pattern Matching......Page 988
Pattern Training......Page 989
Pattern Matching......Page 991
Connected Word Recognition......Page 992
Performance of Connected Word Recognizers......Page 993
Sub-Word Speech Units and Acoustic Modeling......Page 994
Speech Recognition System Issues......Page 995
Keyword Spottingnobreakspace {}cite {10x05.WRL90} and Utterance Verificationnobreakspace {}cite {10x05.RLJ95}......Page 996
ASR Applications......Page 997
Introduction......Page 964
Vocal Personal Identity Characteristics......Page 965
Basic Elements of a Speaker Recognition System......Page 966
Extracting Speaker Information from the Speech Signal......Page 968
Feature Similarity Measurements......Page 970
Units of Speech for Representing Speakers......Page 971
Text Dependent (Randomly Prompted Passwords)......Page 972
Representations That do not Preserve Temporal Characteristics......Page 973
Optimizing Criteria for Model Construction......Page 975
Model Training and Updating......Page 976
Likelihood and Normalized Scores......Page 977
Cohort or Speaker Background Models......Page 978
ROC Curves......Page 979
Outstanding Issues......Page 980
Introduction......Page 1001
The User's Environment (OS-Based vs. Workspace-Based)......Page 1002
Display-Oriented Software......Page 1003
Computation vs. Display......Page 1004
Visual (``Point-and-Click'') Interfaces......Page 1005
Parametric Control of Operations......Page 1006
Consistency Maintenance......Page 1007
Real-Time Performance......Page 1008
Support for Speech Input and Output......Page 1009
Summary of Characteristics and Uses......Page 1010
Sources for Finding Out What is Currently Available......Page 1011
Future Trends......Page 1012
Introduction......Page 1013
Digital Image Definitions......Page 1014
Characteristics of Image Operations......Page 1015
Convolution......Page 1017
Fourier Transforms......Page 1018
Properties of Fourier Transforms......Page 1019
Statistics......Page 1022
Contour Representations......Page 1027
Brightness Sensitivity......Page 1029
Spatial Frequency Sensitivity......Page 1030
Color Sensitivity......Page 1031
Image Sampling......Page 1033
Sampling Density for Image Processing......Page 1034
Sampling Density for Image Analysis......Page 1036
Photon Noise......Page 1037
On-Chip Electronic Noise......Page 1038
Cameras......Page 1039
Sensitivity......Page 1040
SNR......Page 1041
Shading......Page 1042
Pixel Form......Page 1043
Shutter Speeds (Integration Time)......Page 1044
Displays......Page 1045
Histogram-Based Operations......Page 1046
Mathematics-Based Operations......Page 1048
Convolution-Based Operations......Page 1050
Smoothing Operations......Page 1054
Derivative-Based Operations......Page 1059
Morphology-Based Operations......Page 1064
Shading Correction......Page 1077
Basic Enhancement and Restoration Techniques......Page 1079
Segmentation......Page 1084
Acknowledgments......Page 1096
Introduction......Page 1097
Compressibility of Images......Page 1098
The Ideal Coding System......Page 1099
Coding with Reduced Complexity......Page 1100
Signal Decomposition......Page 1101
Decomposition by Filter Banks......Page 1102
Optimal Transforms/Filter Banks......Page 1105
Decomposition by Differential Coding......Page 1107
Scalar Quantization......Page 1108
Vector Quantization......Page 1110
Efficient Use of Bit-Resources......Page 1111
The JPEG Standard......Page 1113
Improved Coders: State-of-the-Art......Page 1115
Fractal Coding......Page 1117
Mathematical Background......Page 1119
Mean-Gain-Shape Attractor Coding......Page 1120
Color Coding......Page 1122
Introduction......Page 1125
Intra-Frame Observation Model......Page 1126
Multiframe Observation Model......Page 1127
Model Parameter Estimation......Page 1128
Estimation of the Noise Variance......Page 1129
Basic Regularized Restoration Methods......Page 1130
Restoration of Images Recorded by Nonlinear Sensors......Page 1134
Adaptive Restoration for Ringing Reduction......Page 1135
Restoration of Multispectral Images......Page 1136
Restoration of Space-Varying Blurred Images......Page 1137
Multiframe Restoration......Page 1138
Superresolution......Page 1139
Superresolution with Space-Varying Restoration......Page 1140
Conclusion......Page 1141
Introduction......Page 1145
Temporal Interpolation......Page 1146
Vertical Interpolation and Interlaced Scanning......Page 1148
Advanced Algorithms......Page 1149
Pel-Recursive Estimators......Page 1155
Block-Matching Algorithm......Page 1156
Search Strategies......Page 1158
Motion Estimation and Scanning Format Conversion......Page 1160
Hierarchical Motion Estimation......Page 1161
Recursive Search Block-Matching......Page 1162
Introduction......Page 1164
Motion Estimation and Compensation......Page 1165
Transformations......Page 1166
Quantization......Page 1172
Desirable Features......Page 1175
Scalability......Page 1176
Error Resilience......Page 1177
H.261......Page 1178
MPEG-1......Page 1180
MPEG-4......Page 1181
Introduction......Page 1184
MUSE System......Page 1185
HDTV in North America......Page 1186
Hybrid Analog/Digital Systems......Page 1187
FEC......Page 1189
Error Detection and Confinement......Page 1190
Scalable Coding for Error Concealment......Page 1191
Multi-Resolution Transmission......Page 1192
Satellite Transmission......Page 1193
ATM Transmission of Video......Page 1194
ATM Adaptation Layer for Digital Video......Page 1195
Cell Loss Protection......Page 1196
Introduction......Page 1199
Acquisition and Display of Stereoscopic Images......Page 1200
Disparity Estimation......Page 1202
Compression of Stereoscopic Images......Page 1205
Intermediate Viewpoint Interpolation......Page 1206
Image Processing Software......Page 1210
General Image Utilities......Page 1211
Specialized Image Utilities......Page 1213
Programming/Analysis Environments......Page 1214
Images by Form......Page 1215
Introduction......Page 1217
Recent Coding Schemes......Page 1218
Architectural Alternatives......Page 1219
Efficiency Estimation of Alternative VLSI Implementations......Page 1220
Dedicated Architectures......Page 1221
Programmable Architectures......Page 1228
Parallel Data Paths......Page 1229
Coprocessor Concept......Page 1232
Conclusion......Page 1236
Introduction......Page 1239
Representations of Deterministic Signals......Page 1241
Finite-Energy Second-Order Stochastic Processes......Page 1242
Second-Order Complex Stochastic Processes......Page 1244
Complex Representations of Finite-Energy Second-Order Stochastic Processes......Page 1245
Finite-Power Stochastic Processes......Page 1247
Complex Wide-Sense-Stationary Processes......Page 1248
Complex Representations of Real Wide-Sense-Stationary Signals......Page 1249
The Multivariate Complex Gaussian Density Function......Page 1250
Related Distributions......Page 1253
Complex F Distribution......Page 1254
Conclusion......Page 1255
Introduction......Page 1257
Beamforming and Spatial Filtering......Page 1258
Second Order Statistics......Page 1262
Beamformer Classification......Page 1263
Classical Beamforming......Page 1264
General Data Independent Response Design......Page 1265
Multiple Sidelobe Canceller......Page 1268
Use of a Reference Signal......Page 1269
Linearly Constrained Minimum Variance Beamforming......Page 1270
Signal Cancellation in Statistically Optimum Beamforming......Page 1272
Adaptive Algorithms for Beamforming......Page 1273
Interference Cancellation and Partially Adaptive Beamforming......Page 1275
Defining Terms......Page 1276
Introduction......Page 1279
Second-Order Statistics-Based Methods......Page 1280
Signal Subspace Methods......Page 1281
Noise Subspace Methods......Page 1284
Discussion......Page 1286
Higher-Order Statistics-Based Methods......Page 1287
Flowchart Comparison of Subspace-Based Methods......Page 1295
Introduction......Page 1303
Notation......Page 1304
The Standard ESPRIT Algorithm......Page 1305
1-D Unitary ESPRIT in Element Space......Page 1308
1-D Unitary ESPRIT in DFT Beamspace......Page 1310
UCA-ESPRIT for Circular Ring Arrays......Page 1313
FCA-ESPRIT for Filled Circular Arrays......Page 1314
2-D Unitary ESPRIT......Page 1317
2-D Array Geometry......Page 1319
2-D Unitary ESPRIT in Element Space......Page 1322
Automatic Pairing of the 2-D Frequency Estimates......Page 1323
2-D Unitary ESPRIT in DFT Beamspace......Page 1325
Simulation Results......Page 1326
A Unified Instrumental Variable Approach to Direction Finding in Colored Noise Fields......Page 1331
Introduction......Page 1332
Problem Formulation......Page 1333
The IV-SSF Approach......Page 1335
The Optimal IV-SSF Method......Page 1336
Algorithm Summary......Page 1340
Numerical Examples......Page 1341
Concluding Remarks......Page 1344
Introduction......Page 1349
Single-Source Single-Vector Sensor Model......Page 1351
Multi-Source Multi-Vector Sensor Model......Page 1357
Statistical Model......Page 1358
The Cram'er-Rao Bound......Page 1359
The MSAE......Page 1360
DST Source Analysis......Page 1361
SST Source (DST Model) Analysis......Page 1362
SST Source (SST Model) Analysis......Page 1363
CVAE and SST Source Analysis in the Wave Frame......Page 1365
A Cross-Product-Based DOA Estimator......Page 1367
Results for Multiple Sources, Single-Vector Sensor......Page 1369
Concluding Remarks......Page 1371
Introduction......Page 1376
Short Memory Windows for Time Varying Estimation......Page 1377
Classification of Subspace Methods......Page 1378
Historical Overview of Adaptive, Non-MEP Methods......Page 1379
Controlling Roundoff Error Accumulation and Orthogonality Errors......Page 1380
Spherical Subspace (SS) Updating --- A General Framework for Simplified Updating......Page 1382
Modified Eigen Problems......Page 1386
Gradient-Based Eigen Tracking......Page 1387
Miscellaneous Methods......Page 1388
Formulation of the Problem......Page 1392
AIC and MDL......Page 1394
Decision Theoretic Approaches......Page 1397
The Sphericity Test......Page 1398
Multiple Hypothesis Testing......Page 1399
For More Information......Page 1401
Introduction and Motivation......Page 1402
Multipath Effects......Page 1403
Typical Channels......Page 1404
Signal Model......Page 1405
Block Signal Model......Page 1407
Spatial and Temporal Structure......Page 1408
Single-User ST-ML and ST-MMSE......Page 1410
Multi-User Algorithms......Page 1415
Switched Beam Systems......Page 1417
Channel Reuse Within Cell......Page 1418
References......Page 1419
Introduction......Page 1422
Beamforming......Page 1423
Minimum Output Noise Power Beamforming (MNP)......Page 1425
MMSE Beamformer: Correlated Arrivals......Page 1429
MMSE Beamformer for Mobile Communications......Page 1431
Model of the Array Output......Page 1432
Maximum Likelihood Estimation of ${bf H}$......Page 1433
Experiments......Page 1437
Conclusions......Page 1439
Space-Time Adaptive Processing for Airborne Surveillance Radar......Page 1442
Main Receive Aperture and Analog Beamforming......Page 1443
The Processing Needs and Major Issues......Page 1444
Temporal DOF Reduction......Page 1447
Adaptive Filtering with Needed and Sample-Supportable DOF and Embedded CFAR Processing......Page 1449
Space or Space-Range Adaptive Pre-Suppression of Jammers......Page 1451
A STAP Example with a Revisit to Analog Beamforming......Page 1452
Summary......Page 1454
Introduction......Page 1457
Modeling and Representation of Chaotic Signals......Page 1458
Use of Chaotic Signals in Communications......Page 1459
Self-Synchronization and Asymptotic Stability......Page 1460
Circuit Implementation and Experiments......Page 1461
Synthesizing Self-Synchronizing Chaotic Systems......Page 1465
Introduction......Page 1471
Eventually Expanding Maps......Page 1472
Estimating Chaotic Signals in Noise......Page 1474
Probabilistic Properties of Chaotic Maps......Page 1475
Statistics of Markov Maps......Page 1477
Power Spectra of Markov Maps......Page 1479
Modeling Eventually Expanding Maps with Markov Maps......Page 1480
Fractal Random Processes......Page 1484
Models and Representations for $1/f$ Processes......Page 1487
Deterministic Fractal Signals......Page 1491
Fractal Point Processes......Page 1492
Multiscale Models......Page 1494
Extended Markov Models......Page 1495
Introduction......Page 1498
Boolean Operators and Threshold Logic......Page 1499
Morphological Set Operators......Page 1500
Morphological Signal Operators and Nonlinear Convolutions......Page 1501
Universality of Morphological Operators......Page 1505
Morphological Operators and Lattice Theory......Page 1508
Slope Transforms......Page 1510
Multiscale Morphological Image Analysis......Page 1513
Binary Multiscale Morphology via Distance Transforms......Page 1515
Differential Equations for Continuous-Scale Morphology......Page 1516
Applications to Image Processing and Vision......Page 1517
Feature Extraction......Page 1518
Shape Representation via Skeleton Transforms......Page 1519
Shape Thinning......Page 1520
Size Distributions......Page 1521
Fractals......Page 1522
Image Segmentation......Page 1523
Conclusions......Page 1524
Introduction......Page 1529
Soliton Systems: The Toda Lattice......Page 1530
The Inverse Scattering Transform......Page 1532
New Electrical Analogs for Soliton Systems......Page 1533
Toda Circuit Model of Hirota and Suzuki......Page 1534
Diode Ladder Circuit Model for Toda Lattice......Page 1535
Circuit Model for Discrete-KdV......Page 1536
Communication with Soliton Signals......Page 1537
Toda Lattice Small Signal Model......Page 1539
Noise Correlation......Page 1540
Inverse Scattering-Based Noise Modeling......Page 1541
Estimation of Soliton Signals......Page 1542
Single Soliton Parameter Estimation: Bounds......Page 1543
Multi-Soliton Parameter Estimation: Bounds......Page 1544
Estimation Algorithms......Page 1545
Estimation Based on Inverse Scattering......Page 1546
Detection of Soliton Signals......Page 1548
Simulations......Page 1549
Introduction......Page 1552
Definitions and Properties of HOS......Page 1553
HOS Computation from Real Data......Page 1556
Linear Processes......Page 1557
Nonparametric Methods......Page 1558
Parametric Methods......Page 1560
Nonlinear Processes......Page 1561
Applications/Software Available......Page 1563
Introduction......Page 1567
Fixed-Point Devices: TMS320C25 Architecture and Fundamental Features......Page 1568
TMS320C25 Memory Organization and Access......Page 1572
TMS320C25 Multiplier and ALU......Page 1576
TMS320C25 Instruction Set......Page 1579
Subroutines, Interrupts, and Stack on the TMS320C25......Page 1582
Introduction to the TMS320C30 Digital Signal Processor......Page 1583
TMS320C30 Memory Organization and Access......Page 1589
Multiplier and ALU of the TMS320C30......Page 1591
Other Architectural Features of the TMS320C30......Page 1592
TMS320C30 Instruction Set......Page 1593
Other Generations and Devices in the TMS320 Family......Page 1595
Rapid Design and Prototyping of DSP Systems......Page 1603
Introduction......Page 1604
Survey of Previous Research......Page 1606
Infrastructure Criteria for the Design Flow......Page 1607
The Executable Requirement......Page 1609
An Executable Requirements Example: MPEG-1 Decoder......Page 1610
The Executable Specification......Page 1611
An Executable Specification Example: MPEG-1 Decoder......Page 1613
Data and Control Flow Modeling......Page 1617
Data and Control Flow Example......Page 1618
Cost Models......Page 1620
Architectural Design Model......Page 1622
Performance Modeling and Architecture Verification......Page 1625
Deterministic Performance Analysis for SCI......Page 1627
DSP Design Case: Single Sensor Multiple Processor (SSMP)......Page 1630
Fully Functional and Interface Modeling andchaptocbreak Hardware Virtual Prototypes......Page 1632
Design Example: I/O Processor for Handling MPEG chaptocbreak Data Stream......Page 1633
Support for Legacy Systems......Page 1634
Conclusions......Page 1637