The Civil Engineering Handbook, 2nd Edition

The Civil Engineering Handbook, Second Edition......Page 0
Preface......Page 3
Editors-in-Chief......Page 5
Contributors......Page 7
Contents......Page 10
Section I — Construction
......Page 16
1.2 Estimating Defined......Page 20
1.4 Types of Estimates......Page 21
Rough Weight Check......Page 22
Comparative Cost of Structure......Page 23
Example 4......Page 24
Example 5......Page 25
Parametric Estimating/Panel Method......Page 26
Solution.......Page 27
Cost Indexing......Page 28
Application of Cost Indices......Page 29
Estimating Replacement Costs......Page 30
The Estimating Process......Page 31
Familiarization with Project Characteristics......Page 32
Examine the Project Design......Page 33
Determine the Elements of Cost......Page 34
Labor Resources......Page 35
Cost of Labor......Page 36
Equipment Selection Criteria......Page 37
Ownership Costs......Page 38
Subcontractor Costs......Page 39
Example 13......Page 40
Solution.......Page 41
Profit......Page 43
Method of Bidding/Payment......Page 44
1.6 Computer-Assisted Estimating......Page 45
References......Page 46
Further Information......Page 47
2.1 Introduction......Page 48
Planning and Scheduling......Page 49
Controlling......Page 50
Critical Path Methods......Page 51
Advantages of CPM......Page 52
Basic Terminology for I-J CPM......Page 53
Developing the I-J CPM Logic Diagram......Page 54
I-J Network Time Calculations......Page 57
Reverse Pass......Page 58
Activity Float Times......Page 59
Total Float......Page 60
Activity Start and Finish Times......Page 61
Overlapping Work Items in I-J CPM......Page 63
2.3 Precedence Critical Path Method......Page 65
Precedence Relationships......Page 66
Precedence Time Calculations......Page 68
Precedence Float Calculations......Page 69
Overlapping Work Items......Page 70
2.4 CPM Day to Calendar Day Conversion......Page 71
Frequency of Updating......Page 73
Methods for Revising the Project Network......Page 74
2.6 Other Applications of CPM......Page 75
Defining Terms......Page 76
Further Information......Page 78
3.1 Introduction......Page 79
3.2 Heavy/Highway Construction Projects......Page 80
Bulldozer Productivity......Page 85
Excavator Productivity......Page 88
Solution.......Page 89
Scraper Production......Page 91
3.3 Municipal/Utility Construction Projects......Page 92
The Mechanized Excavation System......Page 95
The Guidance Control System......Page 96
The Control System......Page 97
Equipment Cost......Page 98
Example 4......Page 100
Acknowledgments......Page 101
Further Information......Page 102
4.1 Introduction......Page 103
Lumber......Page 105
Load Duration - CD......Page 106
Stablity - CP......Page 107
Adjustments to base design values:......Page 108
Plywood......Page 109
Engineering Properties of Plywood......Page 110
Allowable Stresses for Plywood......Page 113
Anchors......Page 114
Column Clamps......Page 115
Lateral Pressure of Concrete......Page 116
Recommended Design Values for Form Pressure......Page 118
Column Forms......Page 119
Example 3......Page 120
Gravity Loads on Formwork......Page 121
Considerations for Multistory Construction......Page 122
4.5 Analysis and Design for Formwork......Page 123
Stress Calculations......Page 124
Bending Stress......Page 125
Deflections......Page 126
Example 5......Page 127
Further Information......Page 130
5.1 Introduction......Page 131
5.2 Contracts......Page 132
5.3 Contract Administration......Page 133
Progress Reports......Page 134
Change Order Records......Page 135
5.5 Changes......Page 136
5.6 Notice Requirements......Page 137
5.7 Oral Changes......Page 139
5.8 Contract Interpretation......Page 140
5.11 Differing Site Conditions......Page 141
5.12 Claim Preparation......Page 142
5.13 Dispute Resolution......Page 143
5.14 Summary......Page 144
Further Information......Page 145
6.1 Introduction......Page 146
6.2 Fixed Construction Automation......Page 148
Automated Brick Masonry......Page 149
Applications of Construction Robots......Page 150
Pile-Driving Robot......Page 151
Horizontal Concrete Distributor......Page 152
Blockbots......Page 153
Fireproofing Spray Robot......Page 154
Autonomous Pipe Mapping......Page 155
ODEX......Page 159
Numerical Control......Page 160
6.4 Computer-Integrated Construction (CIC)......Page 161
Computer-Aided Design (CAD) and Geometric Modeling......Page 162
Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)......Page 163
Walkthrough ™......Page 164
Voice Recognition......Page 165
Track and Drive Tube Conveyors......Page 166
Network Communication......Page 167
6.5 Toward Advanced Construction Automation......Page 170
Global Positioning System (GPS)......Page 171
Construction Robot Path Planning......Page 172
Civil Engineering Works Domain......Page 173
GPS-Based Guiding System......Page 174
Computer Aided Earthmoving System (CAES)......Page 175
Steel Bridge Deck Welding......Page 176
Obayashi’s ABCS......Page 177
Defining Terms......Page 178
References......Page 179
Further Information......Page 183
7.2 Value Engineering......Page 184
Methodology......Page 185
Speculation Phase......Page 186
Analysis Phase......Page 187
Recommendation Phase......Page 188
Implementation......Page 189
7.3 Constructability......Page 190
Engineering and Procurement......Page 191
Implementation......Page 192
7.4 Quality Management......Page 194
Clause 4.1 Management Responsibility......Page 196
Clause 4.3 Contract Review......Page 197
Fishbone Diagram......Page 198
Customer Needs Mapping......Page 199
Quality Function Deployment......Page 200
Implementation......Page 201
Developing a Quality Culture......Page 203
References......Page 204
Quality Management......Page 206
Section II — Environmental Engineering
......Page 207
Water Treatment......Page 210
Stream Standards......Page 211
Rules-of-Thumb for Rivers......Page 215
Rules-of-Thumb for Lakes......Page 219
Effluent Standards......Page 221
References......Page 226
Optimum Construction Staging......Page 227
Population Extrapolation Methods......Page 230
Components-of-Change......Page 231
Correlation Methods......Page 233
Federal Permits......Page 234
State and Local Permits......Page 235
8.3 Design Flows and Loads......Page 236
The Average Concentration......Page 237
Annual Average per Caput Flows and Loads......Page 239
Peak Demand......Page 241
Factors Affecting Household Demand......Page 243
Wastewater Treatment......Page 244
Population Equivalents......Page 246
References......Page 248
Debris and Wildlife......Page 249
Floods and Droughts......Page 250
Longitudinal Transport......Page 252
Lateral Distribution......Page 253
Lake and Reservoir Intakes......Page 255
Surface Waves......Page 256
Lake Stratification......Page 258
Algal Growth in the Epilimnion......Page 259
Algal Death in the Hypolimnion......Page 262
Littoral vs. Pelagic Zones......Page 263
Wells......Page 264
Well Construction and Operation......Page 265
References......Page 266
Bar Screens......Page 268
Manually Cleaned Bar Screens......Page 269
Traveling Screens......Page 270
Fish Screens......Page 271
Comminutors and In-Line Grinders......Page 272
Disc Fine Screens......Page 273
References......Page 274
Reaction Order......Page 275
Completely Mixed Reactors......Page 276
Mixed-Cells-in-Series......Page 278
Ideal Plug Flow......Page 279
Plug Flow with Axial Dispersion......Page 280
References......Page 281
Turbulent/Low to Medium Viscosity......Page 282
Camp-Stein Theory......Page 283
Energy Spectrum and Eddy Size......Page 284
Turbines......Page 285
Paddle Wheel Flocculators......Page 288
Batch Mixing Times......Page 291
Turbines......Page 292
Jets......Page 293
Particle Suspension......Page 294
Floatable Solids......Page 295
References......Page 296
Particle Collision Rate......Page 297
Particle Destabilization......Page 298
Design Criteria for Rapid Mixers......Page 299
Perikinetic Flocculation......Page 300
Turbulent Flocculation and Deflocculation......Page 301
Flocculation Rate......Page 302
Deflocculation Rate......Page 304
Flocculation Design Criteria......Page 308
References......Page 309
9.5 Sedimentation......Page 310
Floc Properties......Page 311
Calculation of the Free, Nonflocculent Settling Velocity......Page 312
Theoretical Formulas......Page 313
Empirical Formulas......Page 314
Settling Velocity Measurement......Page 316
Flocculent versus Nonflocculent Settling......Page 317
Design of Rectangular Clarifiers......Page 318
Sedimentation......Page 319
Nonflocculent Settling......Page 320
Scour......Page 321
Density Currents......Page 322
Traditional Rules of Thumb......Page 324
Design of Circular Tanks......Page 325
Free, Flocculent Settling......Page 326
Sedimentation......Page 327
Tube Inlets......Page 330
Clarifier Inlets......Page 331
Launders......Page 332
Weir/Trough Design......Page 334
Combining-Flow Manifold Design......Page 336
Sludge Composition......Page 339
Sludge Collectors/Conveyors......Page 340
Settling Column Tests......Page 341
Kynch’s Method......Page 342
Initial Settling Velocity Method......Page 343
Hindered Settling Zone......Page 344
Compression Zone......Page 346
References......Page 347
9.6 Filtration......Page 351
Performance......Page 352
Filter Box Design......Page 354
Floor Design......Page 355
Clean Filter Headloss......Page 356
Backwashing......Page 357
Water Treatment......Page 359
Single Media Filters......Page 360
Dual Media Filters......Page 361
Operating Modes......Page 362
Wastewater Treatment......Page 364
References......Page 365
9.7 Activated Carbon......Page 367
Uses......Page 368
Disinfection By-Product (DBP) Precursors......Page 369
Wastewater SOC......Page 371
Freundlich......Page 372
Empirical Column Tests......Page 373
The Logistic Model......Page 378
Packed Column Theory......Page 379
Batch and Ideal Plug Flow Reactors......Page 387
Multicomponent Adsorption......Page 388
Granular Activated Carbon......Page 389
References......Page 391
9.8 Aeration and Gas Exchange......Page 393
Mass Transfer Kinetics......Page 394
Oxygen Solubility......Page 396
Salinity and Chlorinity......Page 397
Effect of Pressure......Page 398
Coarse Bubble Diffusion......Page 399
Fine Bubble Diffusers......Page 402
Air Piping......Page 403
Surface Aerators......Page 404
Carbon Dioxide......Page 405
Chlorine......Page 407
Chlorine Dioxide......Page 408
Ozone......Page 409
Packed Towers......Page 410
Henry’s Law Constants......Page 412
Surface Aerators......Page 414
References......Page 416
Opalescence......Page 419
Brownian Movement......Page 421
Particle Size......Page 422
Classification by Stability......Page 423
Stability......Page 424
Coagulation Chemistry......Page 425
Coagulant Dosage......Page 426
The Jar Test......Page 427
Filter Alum......Page 428
Ferrous and Ferric Iron......Page 431
Lime......Page 433
Coagulant Aids......Page 434
Coagulant Choice......Page 435
References......Page 436
10.2 Softening, Stabilization, and Demineralization......Page 438
Lime/Soda Chemistry......Page 439
Calcium and Magnesium Removal......Page 441
Recarbonation......Page 442
Lead and Copper Control......Page 444
Equilibria......Page 445
Health and Ecology Notes......Page 447
Bed Volume and Salt Requirement......Page 448
Partial Softening......Page 449
Waste Brine......Page 450
Chloride Cycle Dealkalization and Desulfurization......Page 451
References......Page 452
Chlorine......Page 453
Chlorine Dioxide......Page 454
Ozone......Page 455
Nondisinfection Uses Of Oxidants......Page 456
References......Page 457
The Total Coliform Rule......Page 458
The Breakpoint Curve......Page 461
Combined Residual Chlorine (Chloramines)......Page 462
Chlorine Dioxide......Page 463
Effect of Microbial Clusters......Page 464
pH Effects......Page 465
Chloramines......Page 467
Mixed-Cells-in-Series......Page 468
Ultraviolet Irradiator Design......Page 469
Disinfection By-Products......Page 470
Halogenated DBPs......Page 471
Inorganic By-products......Page 472
References......Page 473
11.1 Introduction......Page 475
Biokinetics of Carbonaceous BOD Removal......Page 476
State Variables and Kinetic Relations......Page 477
Active Biomass, Xva......Page 478
Inert Influent Particulate Organic Matter, Xvi......Page 479
Soluble Substrate, Ss......Page 480
Observed Volatile Suspended Solids Yield, Yvo......Page 482
Food-to-Microorganism ratio (F/M or F:M)......Page 483
Substrate Uptake and Growth Kinetics......Page 484
Return Sludge Flow Rate......Page 486
Steady State Oxygen Consumption......Page 487
Temperature......Page 488
System Biomass and Waste Solids Production......Page 489
Aeration Tank Volume and Geometry......Page 491
Secondary Clarifiers......Page 492
Operational and Design Problems......Page 496
Phase Scheduling......Page 497
Membrane Activated Sludge......Page 499
System Configuration......Page 500
The Contact-Stabilization Process......Page 501
The Extended Aeration Process......Page 502
Microbiology......Page 504
Biokinetics......Page 505
Design Solids’ Retention Time......Page 506
Two-Stage Nitrification......Page 507
Growth Kinetics......Page 508
Semi-Aerobic Denitrification......Page 510
Two- and Three-Stage Denitrification......Page 515
Biological Phosphorus Removal......Page 516
Microbiology......Page 517
Phosphorus-Laden Recycle Streams......Page 518
Flow Schematics and Performance......Page 519
References......Page 521
11.3 Aerobic Fixed-Film Processes......Page 527
Trickling Filters......Page 528
Packings (Media)......Page 529
Hydraulics and Pneumatics......Page 530
Distributor Systems......Page 531
Aeration......Page 532
National Research Council Formula......Page 534
Galler-Gotaas Correlation......Page 535
Institution of Water and Environmental Managers......Page 536
Effect of Bed Geometry, Recirculation, and Hydraulic Load......Page 537
Tertiary Nitrification......Page 538
Oxygen-Limited Media Volume......Page 539
Combined BOD and TKN Removal......Page 540
Predator Control......Page 541
Filtration Media......Page 542
Dosing......Page 543
Configuration......Page 544
CBOD Removal Kinetics......Page 545
Nitrification......Page 546
Operation and Design Problems......Page 547
PACT™......Page 548
Design Criteria......Page 549
References......Page 550
11.4 Ponds......Page 553
Piping......Page 554
Kinetic Models......Page 555
Configuration......Page 556
Configuration......Page 557
Bottom Sludge......Page 558
Anaerobic Ponds......Page 559
Kinetics......Page 560
11.5 Land Application......Page 561
Treatment Mechanisms......Page 562
Salinity......Page 563
Storage Requirements......Page 564
Irrigation......Page 565
Irrigation Methods......Page 566
Area Requirement for Water......Page 567
Area Requirement for Organic Matter......Page 568
Overland Flow......Page 569
Kinetic Model......Page 570
Constructed Treatment Wetlands......Page 571
Free Water Surface (FWS) Wetlands......Page 572
Subsurface Flow (SSF) Wetlands......Page 573
References......Page 575
pH......Page 576
Biopiles......Page 577
Biofilters and Bioscrubbers......Page 578
Municipal Solid Waste......Page 579
Material, Heat, and Air Balances......Page 580
Free Airspace......Page 584
References......Page 586
11.7 Sludge Stabilization......Page 587
Microbiology and Pattern of Digestion......Page 588
Gas Stoichiometry......Page 590
Kinetics......Page 592
Temperature......Page 594
Moisture Limitation......Page 595
Heat Balance......Page 597
Microbiology......Page 599
pH......Page 600
Land Disposal of Sludges......Page 601
Alternative 1......Page 602
Alternative 3......Page 603
Concentration and Loading Limits for Sewage Sludge......Page 604
References......Page 605
12.1 Introduction......Page 607
12.2 Regulations......Page 608
Attainment and Nonattainment......Page 609
Prevention of Significant Deterioration......Page 610
Hazardous Air Pollutants......Page 611
Compliance Assurance Monitoring......Page 612
State and Local Air Quality Programs......Page 616
12.3 Emissions Estimation......Page 617
Example 12.1......Page 618
12.4 Stack Sampling......Page 620
12.5 Emissions Control......Page 632
Settling Chambers......Page 633
Particle Settling Velocity......Page 635
Cyclones......Page 636
Conventional Cyclone Design Approach......Page 637
Wet Scrubbers......Page 639
Wet Scrubber Design Approach......Page 641
Filtration Media......Page 642
Air-to-Cloth Ratio......Page 643
Ambient Air Dilution......Page 644
Radiation and Free Convection......Page 645
Example 12.2......Page 646
Fuel Conversion......Page 647
Regenerative Systems......Page 648
Low NOx Burners......Page 649
Volatile Organic Compounds......Page 650
Incineration......Page 651
12.6 Odor......Page 652
Characteristics of Odor......Page 653
Odor Control Techniques......Page 654
Wind (Advection)......Page 656
Wind Variations......Page 657
Wind Rose......Page 658
Stability......Page 660
Lapse Rates......Page 661
Plume Characteristics......Page 662
12.8 Dispersion Modeling......Page 667
Effective Stack Height......Page 669
Buoyant Plume Sources......Page 670
Gaseous Dispersion......Page 671
Regulatory Air Models......Page 673
References......Page 675
13.
Incinerators......Page 677
Incineration and Clean Air Laws......Page 678
Incinerator Regulation Under the Toxic Substances Control Act......Page 679
Incinerator Regulation Under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act......Page 680
Definition of Solid, Hazardous, and Medical Waste......Page 681
Regulation of Incinerators......Page 682
Oxygen Correction Factors......Page 685
13.2 Principles of Combustion and Incineration Thermodynamics......Page 686
13.3 Combustion Chemistry......Page 691
Particulate and Metal Fume Formation......Page 692
Material and Energy Balances......Page 694
Nonhazardous Waste Incinerators......Page 711
Liquid Injection Incinerators......Page 713
Rotary Kiln Incinerators......Page 716
Fluidized Bed Incinerators......Page 719
Multiple Hearth Incinerators......Page 721
Boilers and Industrial Furnaces......Page 722
Quench......Page 726
Heat Recovery Systems......Page 727
Electrostatic Precipitators......Page 728
Rapping Techniques......Page 730
Fabric Filters......Page 731
Pulse-Jet Bag Cleaning Equipment......Page 733
Fabric Filter System Instruments......Page 734
Gas Atomized (Venturi) Scrubbers......Page 735
Hydrosonics™ Scrubber......Page 737
Ionizing Wet Scrubbers......Page 739
Packed Bed and Tray Tower Scrubbers......Page 740
Dry Scrubbing Systems......Page 741
Compliance Test for Hazardous Waste Incinerators......Page 742
POHC Selection - Incinerability Ranking......Page 745
Defining Terms......Page 746
References......Page 752
14.2 Solid Waste......Page 756
Municipal Solid Waste......Page 757
14.3 Landfills......Page 759
Design Criteria......Page 761
Closure and Postclosure Requirements......Page 762
Remedial Alternatives for Superfund Municipal Landfills......Page 763
Leachate......Page 764
Landfill Gas......Page 767
Defining Terms......Page 768
References......Page 769
Section III — Geotechnical Engineering
......Page 770
Grain-Size Characteristics of Soils......Page 772
Atterberg Limits and Plasticity......Page 773
The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)......Page 774
The AASHTO Classification System......Page 776
Example 15.1......Page 777
Example 15.2......Page 779
15.2 Weight, Mass, and Volume Relationships......Page 780
Volume Relationships......Page 781
Density......Page 782
Weight-Volume Problems Involving Defined Quantities......Page 783
Example 15.4 (English Units)......Page 784
Example 15.5 (SI units)......Page 785
Example 15.6......Page 786
Equations among Relationships......Page 787
Section 15.1......Page 788
References......Page 789
Further Information......Page 790
16.2 Probabilistic Preliminaries......Page 791
Solution......Page 792
Moments......Page 793
Solution......Page 794
Solution......Page 795
Solution......Page 796
Solution......Page 798
Solution......Page 800
16.4 Point Estimate Method - One Random Variable......Page 802
16.5 Regression and Correlation......Page 803
16.6 Point Estimate Method - Several Random Variables......Page 804
Solution......Page 805
16.7 Reliability Analysis......Page 806
16.8 Recommended Procedure......Page 808
Example 16.13......Page 809
Solution......Page 810
References......Page 811
Further Information......Page 812
17.2 Strength Parameters Based on Effective Stresses and Total Stresses......Page 813
17.4 Shear Strength of Granular Soils......Page 814
17.5 Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils......Page 816
17.6 Elastic Modulus of Granular Soils......Page 820
Defining Terms......Page 821
References......Page 822
Further Information......Page 823
18.2 Some Fundamentals......Page 824
Bernoulli’s Equation......Page 825
Darcy’s Law......Page 826
Streamlines and Equipotential Lines......Page 828
18.3 The Flow Net......Page 832
Example 18.3......Page 834
Solution......Page 835
18.4 Method of Fragments......Page 836
Solution......Page 839
Solution......Page 840
18.5 Flow in Layered Systems......Page 842
Solution......Page 843
18.6 Piping......Page 844
Solution......Page 847
References......Page 848
Further Information......Page 849
19.1 Components of Total Settlement......Page 850
19.2 Immediate Settlement......Page 851
19.3 Consolidation Settlement......Page 854
Total Consolidation Settlement......Page 855
Rate of Consolidation Settlement......Page 859
19.4 Secondary Compression Settlement......Page 861
References......Page 863
20.1 Elastic Theory (Continuum)......Page 865
Force Normal to Surface (Boussinesq Problem)......Page 866
Solution......Page 867
Uniform Flexible Load over Rectangular Area......Page 868
Two-Dimensional Systems......Page 869
Solution......Page 870
Solution......Page 872
Infinite Strip of Width b......Page 873
Solution......Page 874
Solution......Page 875
Solution......Page 876
Normal Uniform Load over a Rectangular Area......Page 877
Solution......Page 878
Solution......Page 879
References......Page 880
Further Information......Page 881
21.1 Introduction......Page 882
21.2 Factors to Consider......Page 884
21.3 Analytical Approaches......Page 885
Slices as Free Bodies......Page 886
Ordinary Method of Slices......Page 887
Other Slice Methods......Page 888
Irregular and Planar Failure Surfaces......Page 889
Pseudostatic Analysis......Page 891
Dynamic Analysis......Page 892
Eliminate or Reduce the Hazard......Page 893
Cut Slopes in Rock......Page 894
Infiltration and Erosion Protection......Page 896
Surface Drainage Systems......Page 897
Cut Slopes......Page 898
Failing Slopes......Page 899
Sidehill Fills......Page 900
Corrective Treatments......Page 901
Retention......Page 902
Soil Slopes......Page 903
Embankments over Soft Ground......Page 904
21.5 Investigation and Monitoring......Page 905
Instrumentation and Monitoring......Page 906
References......Page 907
22.2 Lateral Earth Pressures......Page 910
22.3 Earth Pressure Theories......Page 912
22.4 Rigid Retaining Walls......Page 913
Solution......Page 916
22.5 Flexible Retaining Structures......Page 917
Solution......Page 920
Defining Terms......Page 921
References......Page 922
Further Information......Page 923
23.1 Effective Stress......Page 924
23.2 Settlement of Foundations......Page 928
Time-Dependent Settlement......Page 932
23.3 Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations......Page 934
Toe Resistance......Page 941
Ultimate Resistance - Capacity......Page 942
Analysis of Capacity for Tapered Piles......Page 943
Factor of Safety......Page 944
Empirical Methods for Determining Axial Pile Capacity......Page 945
The Lambda Method......Page 946
Field Testing for Determining Axial Pile Capacity......Page 947
Dynamic Analysis and Testing......Page 948
Installation Phase......Page 950
Summary of Axial Design of Piles......Page 953
Design of Piles for Horizontal Loading......Page 954
Defining Terms......Page 956
References......Page 957
Further Information......Page 958
24.1 Introduction......Page 960
Historical and Recent Developments......Page 961
24.2 Filtration, Drainage, and Erosion Control......Page 963
Applications......Page 964
Prefabricated Drains......Page 965
24.3 Geosynthetics in Temporary and Permanent Roadways and Railroads......Page 966
Reinforced Embankments......Page 967
Reinforced Retaining Walls and Abutments......Page 969
References......Page 971
25.2 Earthquake Strong Shaking......Page 974
25.3 Site-Specific Amplification......Page 976
Site-Specific Amplification......Page 979
25.4 Soil Liquefaction......Page 981
Soil Liquefaction......Page 982
25.5 Seismic Slope Stability......Page 983
Defining Terms......Page 985
References......Page 986
Further Information......Page 988
Waste Disposal Projects......Page 989
Environmental Remediation Projects......Page 992
26.2 Geo-Environmental Containment Systems......Page 993
Low-Permeability Covers......Page 994
Slurry Walls......Page 995
26.3 Liners and Covers......Page 996
Barrier Layers......Page 997
Drainage Layers......Page 999
Vegetative Layer......Page 1000
Barrier Layers......Page 1001
Drainage Layers......Page 1002
Geotextiles......Page 1003
Defining Terms......Page 1004
Further Information......Page 1007
27.2 Subsurface Characterization Methodology......Page 1008
Test Pits......Page 1009
Cone Penetration Testing......Page 1010
Pressuremeter Testing......Page 1013
Vane Shear Test......Page 1015
Seismic Refraction......Page 1016
Other Testing Techniques......Page 1018
Defining Terms......Page 1019
For Further Information......Page 1025
28.1 Introduction......Page 1027
28.2 In Situ Tests......Page 1028
Cone Penetration Test......Page 1029
Pressuremeter Test......Page 1031
Dilatometer Test......Page 1032
28.3 Instrumentation for Monitoring Performance......Page 1033
Instruments for Measurement of Loads and Stresses......Page 1035
Instruments for Measurement of Deformations......Page 1036
Instruments for Measurement of Pore Water Pressure......Page 1038
Construction of Embankments on Soft Ground......Page 1040
Static Load Tests on Deep Foundations......Page 1042
Defining Terms......Page 1044
References......Page 1046
Further Information......Page 1048
Catalogs and Other Publications by Manufacturers......Page 1049
Section IV — Hydraulic Engineering
......Page 1050
29.1 Introduction......Page 1054
Surface Tension and Capillary Effects......Page 1055
Hydrostatics......Page 1056
Forces on Plane Surfaces......Page 1057
Application 1: Force on a Vertical Dam Face......Page 1058
Application 4: Archimedes’ Law of Buoyancy......Page 1059
29.4 Fluids in Non-Uniform Motion......Page 1060
The Bernoulli Theorem......Page 1061
29.5 Fundamental Conservation Laws......Page 1062
The Conservation Equations......Page 1063
Application 6: The Venturi Tube......Page 1065
Application 7: The Rectangular Sharp-Crested Weir......Page 1066
Application 9: Energy Equation in a Pipe System with Pump......Page 1067
The Buckingham-Pi Theorem and Dimensionless Groups......Page 1068
Application 10: Pump Performance Parameters......Page 1069
29.7 Velocity Profiles and Flow Resistance in Pipes and Open Channels......Page 1070
Friction Relationships for Laminar Flows......Page 1071
Friction Relationships for Turbulent Flows in Conduits......Page 1072
Application 12: A Piping System with Minor Losses......Page 1073
The Standard Drag Curve......Page 1074
Pipe Flow Measurements......Page 1075
Open-Channel Flow Measurements......Page 1076
Further Information......Page 1085
30.1 Definitions and Principles......Page 1086
30.2 Balance and Conservation Principles......Page 1088
Piezometric Head......Page 1089
Total Thrust and Specific Force......Page 1090
Balance of Mechanical Energy......Page 1091
Specific Energy......Page 1092
Example 30.1 Subcritical Flow on a Step......Page 1094
Example 30.2 Supercritical Flow on a Step......Page 1095
30.3 Uniform Flow......Page 1096
30.4 Composite Cross-Sections......Page 1098
30.5 Gradually Varied Flow......Page 1100
The M3 Profile (0 < y < yc)......Page 1101
The S2 Profile (yo < y < yc)......Page 1102
The A3 Profile (y < yc)......Page 1103
30.7 Qualitative Solution of Flow Profiles......Page 1104
Phase II - Virtual Control Section (VCS) Determination......Page 1105
Phase III - Profile Sketching......Page 1106
30.8 Methods of Calculation of Flow Profiles......Page 1107
Example 30.4 Direct Step Method......Page 1108
30.9 Unsteady Flows......Page 1109
Defining Terms......Page 1110
Further Information......Page 1111
31.1 Introduction......Page 1112
Historical Development......Page 1113
Average Rainfall over an Area......Page 1114
Intensity - Duration - Frequency (i-d-f) Curves......Page 1116
Dimensionless Mass Curves......Page 1117
Other Probabilistic Aspects......Page 1118
31.3 Evaporation and Transpiration......Page 1119
Evapotranspiration......Page 1121
31.4 Infiltration......Page 1122
Infiltration Models......Page 1123
Horton Equation......Page 1124
31.5 Surface Runoff......Page 1125
Unit Hydrographs......Page 1127
Synthetic Unit Hydrographs......Page 1129
SCS Method......Page 1130
Hydraulic Routing......Page 1131
Hydrologic Channel Routing......Page 1132
Reservoir Routing......Page 1133
Probability Distributions and Parameter Estimates......Page 1134
Frequency Analysis of Hydrologic Data......Page 1135
Water Resources Council Method......Page 1136
Defining Terms......Page 1137
References......Page 1138
Further Information......Page 1139
32.1 Introduction......Page 1141
32.2 The Rational Method......Page 1142
Time of Concentration and Travel Time......Page 1143
32.3 The Soil Conservation Service Methods......Page 1145
Application of the SCS Method......Page 1146
Storage Determination By Using the Rational Method......Page 1147
Detention Storage Layout......Page 1149
References......Page 1151
Further Information......Page 1152
33.1 Urban Runoff......Page 1153
Point Sources......Page 1154
Nonpoint Sources......Page 1155
Nonpoint Source Pollution......Page 1156
Nationwide Urban Runoff Program (NURP)......Page 1157
33.3 Water Quality Regulations and Policies......Page 1160
Lakes......Page 1161
33.4 Modeling......Page 1162
Point Source Models......Page 1163
33.5 Best Management Practices......Page 1165
Point Source Programs......Page 1166
Total Maximum Daily Loads......Page 1169
Structural Measures......Page 1171
Defining Terms......Page 1172
References......Page 1173
Further Information......Page 1175
Subsurface Water......Page 1176
Physical Properties......Page 1177
Darcy’s Law......Page 1179
Transient Flow to a Well......Page 1180
Pumping Tests......Page 1182
Multiple Wells and Boundaries......Page 1183
Construction Methods......Page 1185
Calculation of Subsidence......Page 1186
Diffusion and Dispersion......Page 1187
Sorption......Page 1188
Multiphase Flow......Page 1189
34.6 Remediation......Page 1191
Wellhead Protection......Page 1192
34.7 Landfills......Page 1193
34.8 Geostatistics......Page 1195
Estimation......Page 1196
34.9 Groundwater Modeling......Page 1197
Software......Page 1199
References......Page 1200
Further Information......Page 1202
35.1 Introduction......Page 1204
Angle of Repose......Page 1205
35.3 Flow Characteristics and Dimensionless Parameters; Notation......Page 1206
Example 35.1......Page 1208
35.5 Flow Resistance and Stage-Discharge Predictors......Page 1209
Form and Grain Resistance Approach......Page 1210
Overall Resistance Approach......Page 1211
Critical Velocity......Page 1212
35.6 Sediment Transport......Page 1213
Suspended Load Models......Page 1214
Bed-Load Models and Formulae......Page 1215
Example 35.5......Page 1216
Local Scour......Page 1217
Unsteady Aspects......Page 1218
Gravel-Bed Streams......Page 1220
Defining Terms......Page 1221
References......Page 1222
Further Information......Page 1223
36.1 Wave Mechanics......Page 1224
Progressive, Small-Amplitude Waves - Properties......Page 1225
Particle Motions......Page 1226
Wave Energy......Page 1228
Wave Refraction......Page 1230
Wave Diffraction......Page 1231
Wave Breaking......Page 1232
36.2 Ocean Wave Climate......Page 1233
Wave Prediction......Page 1234
Tides......Page 1236
Seiches......Page 1237
Climatologic Effects......Page 1238
Beach Profiles......Page 1239
Longshore Currents......Page 1240
Sediment Transport......Page 1241
36.5 Coastal Structures and Design......Page 1242
Environmental Impacts of Coastal Structures......Page 1243
Further Information......Page 1244
Defining Terms......Page 1245
References......Page 1246
37.2 Reservoirs......Page 1247
Reservoir Characteristics......Page 1248
Capacity of a Reservoir......Page 1249
Reservoir Sedimentation......Page 1250
Impacts of Dams and Reservoirs......Page 1251
Stability of Gravity Dams......Page 1255
Earth Dams......Page 1257
Overflow Spillways......Page 1259
Other Types of Spillways......Page 1261
Spillway Crest Gates......Page 1264
Hydraulics of Outlet Works......Page 1265
37.6 Energy Dissipation Structures......Page 1266
37.8 Open Channel Transitions......Page 1268
37.9 Culverts......Page 1269
Inlets......Page 1270
Sedimentation and Scour......Page 1271
Backwater Computation......Page 1272
Discharge Estimation......Page 1274
Networks......Page 1275
Hydraulic Transients and Water Hammer......Page 1277
Surge Protection and Surge Tanks......Page 1278
Cavitation......Page 1279
Forces on Pipes and Temperature Stresses......Page 1281
37.12 Pumps......Page 1282
Pump Characteristics......Page 1283
Pump Systems......Page 1284
Defining Terms......Page 1285
References......Page 1286
Further Information......Page 1290
38.2 Some Commonly Used Models......Page 1291
Summary of TR-20 Input Structure......Page 1295
Tabular Data......Page 1296
Preparation of Input Data......Page 1297
Computer Input......Page 1298
Example 38.2......Page 1300
Calculations......Page 1302
Example 38.3......Page 1303
Computer Input......Page 1305
Summary......Page 1306
38.4 The HEC-HMS Model......Page 1308
Basin Models......Page 1310
Control Specifications......Page 1311
Hydrologic Input Data......Page 1312
Output......Page 1314
38.5 The HEC-RAS Model......Page 1315
Unsteady Flow Simulation......Page 1316
HEC-RAS Hydraulic Model Structure......Page 1317
Hydraulic Input Data......Page 1318
HEC-RAS Output......Page 1319
38.6 XP-SWMM......Page 1320
Water Quality Simulation......Page 1322
RUNOFF Block......Page 1323
Results......Page 1324
Further Information......Page 1325
Water Resources Decision Making......Page 1326
Optimization vs. Simulation Models......Page 1328
Lumped vs. Distributed Data Models......Page 1330
39.2 Evaluation of Management Alternatives......Page 1331
39.3 Water Quantity Management Modeling......Page 1332
Reservoir Storage Requirements......Page 1333
Flood Control Planning......Page 1334
Water Supply Objectives......Page 1335
Real-Time Operations......Page 1336
Stochastic Reservoir Modeling......Page 1337
Water Quality Modeling......Page 1338
39.4 Data Considerations......Page 1339
Defining Terms......Page 1340
References......Page 1341
Further Information......Page 1343
Section V — Materials Engineering......Page 1344
40.1 Introduction......Page 1346
Portland Cement......Page 1347
Supplementary Cementitious Materials......Page 1350
40.3 Aggregates......Page 1351
40.4 Water......Page 1353
Water Reducing and Retarding Admixtures......Page 1354
40.6 Hydration and Structure of Cement Paste......Page 1356
40.7 Mixture Design......Page 1357
40.8 Properties of Fresh Concrete......Page 1358
40.9 Properties of Hardened Concrete......Page 1359
Compressive Strength......Page 1360
Modulus of Elasticity......Page 1361
References......Page 1362
Further Information......Page 1364
41.1 Introduction......Page 1365
41.2 Permeation Properties......Page 1366
Carbonation......Page 1367
Propagation Stage of Corrosion......Page 1368
Control Strategy......Page 1369
41.5 Sulfate Attack......Page 1370
Internal Sulfate......Page 1371
Action On Sewers......Page 1372
41.9 Frost Action......Page 1373
41.11 Design for Durability......Page 1374
Concrete Quality......Page 1375
Further Information......Page 1376
42.1 Concreting in Extreme Climatic Conditions......Page 1377
Cold Climatic Condition......Page 1378
Issues Relating to Properties of Hardened Concrete......Page 1379
Temperature Control......Page 1380
Potential Cracking in Fresh Concrete......Page 1381
42.2 Polymer Modified Concrete......Page 1382
Polymer Cement Concrete......Page 1383
Polymer Concrete......Page 1384
References......Page 1386
Definitions......Page 1387
High Performance Criteria......Page 1388
Cements, Chemical Admixtures, Mineral Additives, Fibers and Special Reinforcement......Page 1389
Self-Leveling Concrete for Foundation of Raffles City - Singapore......Page 1390
High Strength Concrete Projects......Page 1391
Hibernia Offshore Platform - Grand Banks, offshore Newfoundland, Canada......Page 1393
Harbour Tunnel - Australia......Page 1394
Sustainability as Key Criterion......Page 1395
References......Page 1396
42.4 Self-Compacting Concrete......Page 1397
References......Page 1398
Compressive Strength and Water-to-Binder Ratio......Page 1399
Mechanical Properties......Page 1400
Drying Shrinkage and Creep Characteristics......Page 1403
Corrosion of Steel Reinforcement......Page 1404
Sulphate Resistance......Page 1407
Basis for Applications......Page 1410
Service Life Designs......Page 1411
Choice for Sustainability......Page 1413
Current Developments......Page 1414
References......Page 1415
Further Information......Page 1416
Moving Forward......Page 1417
Optimum Use of Natural, Industrial By-Products and Recycled Materials......Page 1418
Application of Design Principles With Respect to Life-Cycle Cost......Page 1419
References......Page 1420
Further Information......Page 1421
Websites......Page 1422
What Is Wood?......Page 1425
Wood Chemistry and Anatomy......Page 1426
43.2 Wood Defects as They Affect Wood Strength......Page 1427
Specific Gravity (SG)......Page 1430
Durability......Page 1431
43.4 Mechanical Properties of Selected Species......Page 1432
Strengths and Weaknesses......Page 1435
Age Effects......Page 1436
43.5 Structural Products and Their Uses......Page 1437
43.7 Grades and Grading of Wood Products......Page 1441
43.9 Where Do Designers Go Wrong? Typical Problems in Wood Construction......Page 1443
43.10 Wood and the Environment......Page 1447
Defining Terms......Page 1448
References......Page 1450
Further Information......Page 1451
44.1 Properties and Processes......Page 1452
Structural Properties......Page 1455
Heat Treatment......Page 1457
Welding......Page 1458
44.2 Service Performance......Page 1459
Fatigue......Page 1461
Performance in Fire......Page 1464
Creep and Relaxation......Page 1466
Corrosion and Corrosion Protection......Page 1467
References......Page 1468
Corrosion, Corrosion Protection......Page 1469
45.2 Bituminous Materials......Page 1470
Solubility Test......Page 1471
Viscosity Tests......Page 1472
Ring & Ball Softening Point Test......Page 1473
Conventional Methods of Grading and Specifications of Asphalt Cements......Page 1474
Dynamic Shear Rheometer Test......Page 1477
Direct Tension Test......Page 1479
Superpave Binder Specification......Page 1480
Effects of Viscoelastic Properties of Asphalt......Page 1481
Effects of Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Flow Properties of Asphalt......Page 1482
Effects of Hardening Characteristics of Asphalt......Page 1483
Types and Grades of Emulsified Asphalts......Page 1485
Classification by Composition and Characteristics......Page 1487
Aggregate Gradation......Page 1488
Maximum Aggregate Size......Page 1489
Aggregate Shape and Texture......Page 1490
Strength and Toughness......Page 1491
Different Volumes in a Compacted Asphalt Mixture......Page 1492
Percent Voids Filled with Asphalt......Page 1493
Marshall Mix Design Method......Page 1494
Hveem Mix Design Method......Page 1497
Superpave Volumetric Mix Design Method......Page 1498
GTM Mix Design Method......Page 1501
References......Page 1503
Further Information......Page 1504
Journals......Page 1505
Section VI — Structural Engineering......Page 1423
46.
Mechanics of Materials......Page 1506
Definition of Stress......Page 1507
Differential Equations for Equilibrium......Page 1508
Stress Analysis of Axially Loaded Bars......Page 1509
Hooke’s Law......Page 1510
Constitutive Relations......Page 1514
Deformation of Axially Loaded Bars......Page 1515
Thermal Strain and Deformation......Page 1516
Elastic Strain Energy for Uniaxial Stress......Page 1517
Mathematical Definition of Strain......Page 1518
E, G, and Relationship......Page 1520
46.5 Torsion......Page 1521
Angle-of-Twist of Circular Members......Page 1522
Torsion of Solid Noncircular Members......Page 1523
Torsion of Thin-Walled Hollow Members......Page 1525
46.6 Bending......Page 1527
The Elastic Flexure Formula......Page 1528
Unsymmetric Bending and Bending with Axial Loads......Page 1529
Bending of Beams with Unsymmetric Cross Section......Page 1530
Area Moments of Inertia......Page 1531
46.7 Shear Stresses in Beams......Page 1532
Shear-Stress Formula for Beams......Page 1534
Shear Stresses in a Rectangular Beam......Page 1535
Shear Stresses in Beam Flanges......Page 1536
Shear Center......Page 1538
46.8 Transformation of Stress and Strain......Page 1539
Maximum Shear Stress......Page 1540
Mohr’s Circle of Stress......Page 1541
Principal Stresses for a General State of Stress......Page 1542
Transformation of Strain......Page 1543
Yield and Fracture Criteria......Page 1544
46.9 Stability of Equilibrium: Columns......Page 1547
Buckling Theory for Columns......Page 1548
Generalized Euler Buckling Load Formulas......Page 1550
Eccentric Loads and the Secant Formula......Page 1551
Differential Equations for Beam-Columns......Page 1552
Defining Terms......Page 1553
Further Information......Page 1554
47.
Theory and Analysis of Structures......Page 1555
Boundary Conditions......Page 1556
Loads and Reactions......Page 1557
Relation between Load, Shear Force, and Bending Moment......Page 1559
Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams......Page 1560
Fixed-End Beams......Page 1561
Continuous Beams......Page 1564
Example 47.1......Page 1566
Beam Deflection......Page 1567
Moment Area Method......Page 1568
Circumferential Stresses......Page 1570
Example 47.2......Page 1572
47.3 Trusses......Page 1573
Example 47.3......Page 1575
Compound Trusses......Page 1577
Slope Deflection Method......Page 1578
Example 47.4......Page 1579
Fixed-End Moments......Page 1582
Moment Distribution for Frames......Page 1584
Method of Consistent Deformations......Page 1585
Structures with Several Redundants......Page 1587
Example 47.5......Page 1588
47.5 Plates......Page 1591
Clamped Edge......Page 1594
Free Edge......Page 1595
Bending of Rectangular Plates......Page 1596
Bending of Circular Plates......Page 1603
Strain Energy of Simple Plates......Page 1604
Equilateral Triangular Plates......Page 1607
Rectangular Plate Supported at Corners......Page 1608
47.6 Shells......Page 1609
Shells of Revolution......Page 1612
Conical Shells......Page 1613
Cylindrical Shells......Page 1615
Symmetrically Loaded Circular Cylindrical Shells......Page 1616
Influence Lines for Shear in Simple Beams......Page 1619
Influence Lines for Trusses......Page 1620
Influence Lines for Continuous Beams......Page 1621
Strain Energy Due to Uniaxial Stress......Page 1622
Strain Energy in Shear......Page 1624
The Law of Conservation of Energy......Page 1625
The Theorem of Minimum Potential Energy......Page 1626
Solution:......Page 1627
Example 47.7......Page 1628
Unit Load Method......Page 1629
Solution:......Page 1630
Flexibility Method......Page 1631
Stiffness Method......Page 1633
Flexural Member......Page 1634
Structure Stiffness Matrix......Page 1637
Example 47.9......Page 1639
Example 47.10......Page 1640
Loading between Nodes......Page 1642
Semirigid End Connection......Page 1643
Basic Principle......Page 1644
Elastic Formulation......Page 1645
Plane Strain......Page 1646
Choice of Displacement Function......Page 1647
Isoparametric Elements......Page 1649
Formulation of Stiffness Matrix......Page 1650
Plates Subjected to In-Plane Forces......Page 1655
Beam Element......Page 1657
Plate Element......Page 1659
47.11 Inelastic Analysis......Page 1663
Redistribution of Forces......Page 1664
Plastic Moment Capacity......Page 1666
Upper Bound Theorem......Page 1669
Example 47.11: Continuous Beam......Page 1670
Example 47.12: Portal Frame......Page 1672
Types of Mechanisms......Page 1674
Example 47.13: Rectangular Frame......Page 1676
Example 47.14: Frame Subjected to Distributed Load......Page 1677
Example 47.15: Gable Frame......Page 1678
Solution:......Page 1679
Analysis Aids for Gable Frames......Page 1682
Grillages......Page 1684
Six-Beam Grillage......Page 1685
Vierendeel Girders......Page 1687
Elastic Buckling Analysis......Page 1688
Second-Order Elastic Analysis......Page 1689
Second-Order Inelastic Analysis......Page 1690
Column Stability......Page 1691
Column with Pinned Ends......Page 1692
Column with Fixed Ends......Page 1693
Column with One End Fixed and One End Free......Page 1694
Stability of Beam-Columns......Page 1695
Beam-Column Subjected to Transverse Loading......Page 1698
Beam-Column Subjected to End Moments......Page 1699
Slope Deflection Equations......Page 1700
Member with a Hinge at One End......Page 1702
Member with End Restraints......Page 1703
Second-Order Elastic Analysis......Page 1704
Modification for End Connections......Page 1707
Second-Order Refined Plastic Hinge Analysis......Page 1708
Second-Order Spread of Plasticity Analysis......Page 1709
Three-Dimensional Frame Element......Page 1710
Buckling of Thin Plates......Page 1712
Circular Plates......Page 1714
Buckling of Shells......Page 1715
Free Vibration......Page 1716
Example 47.16: Undamped Free Vibration......Page 1717
Example 47.17: Damped Free Vibration......Page 1718
Forced Vibration......Page 1719
Response to Suddenly Applied Load......Page 1720
Multiple Degree Systems......Page 1721
Flexural Vibration of Beams......Page 1722
Combined Shear and Flexure......Page 1723
Natural Frequency of Multistory Building Frames......Page 1724
Portal Frames......Page 1725
Numerical Analysis......Page 1728
References......Page 1729
48.
Design of Steel Structures......Page 1732
Fireproofing of Steel......Page 1733
Corrosion Protection of Steel......Page 1735
Bolts......Page 1736
Weldability of Steel......Page 1737
Design Formats......Page 1738
Tension Member Design......Page 1740
Allowable Stress Design......Page 1741
Example 48.1......Page 1743
Load and Resistance Factor Design......Page 1746
48.4 Compression Members......Page 1747
Load and Resistance Design......Page 1749
Built-up Compression Members......Page 1753
Example 48.2......Page 1754
Column Bracing......Page 1756
48.5 Flexural Members......Page 1757
Flexural Member Design......Page 1758
Criteria for Concentrated Loads......Page 1760
Example 48.3......Page 1761
Load and Resistance Factor Design......Page 1763
Shear Strength Criterion......Page 1766
Criteria for Concentrated Loads......Page 1767
Example 48.4......Page 1769
Strength Requirement for Lateral Bracing......Page 1772
Strength Requirement for Torsional Bracing......Page 1773
Design for Combined Flexure and Axial Force......Page 1774
Load and Resistance Factor Design......Page 1775
Example 48.6......Page 1777
Load and Resistance Factor Design......Page 1778
48.9 Frames......Page 1779
48.10 Plate Girders......Page 1780
Allowable Shear Stress......Page 1781
Flexural Strength Criterion......Page 1782
Flexure-Shear Interaction......Page 1784
Intermediate Stiffeners......Page 1785
Example 48.7......Page 1786
Example 48.8......Page 1788
Bolted Connections......Page 1789
Allowable Stress Design......Page 1790
Load and Resistance Factor Design......Page 1791
Load and Resistance Factor Design......Page 1792
Bearing Strength at Fastener Holes......Page 1793
Maximum Fastener Spacing......Page 1794
Example 48.9......Page 1795
Bolted Hanger-Type Connections......Page 1796
Bolted Shear Connections......Page 1798
Design of Moment-Resisting Connections......Page 1799
Welding Symbols......Page 1801
Strength of Welds......Page 1802
Effective Area of Welds......Page 1803
Size and Length Limitations of Welds......Page 1804
Welded Connections for Tension Members......Page 1805
Welded Connections with Welds Subjected to Combined Shear and Flexure......Page 1806
Welded Shear Connections......Page 1807
Welded Moment-Resisting Connections......Page 1808
Shop-Welded and Field-Bolted Connections......Page 1809
48.12 Column Base Plates and Beam Bearing Plates (LRFD Approach)......Page 1810
Axially Loaded Base Plates......Page 1811
Small Eccentricity......Page 1813
Base Plates with Shear......Page 1814
Anchor Bolts......Page 1815
Beam Bearing Plates......Page 1816
Composite Columns......Page 1817
Design Compressive Strength......Page 1818
Steel Beams with Shear Connectors......Page 1819
Composite Floor Slabs......Page 1820
48.14 Plastic Design......Page 1823
Plastic Design of Beam-Columns......Page 1824
Reduced Beam Section......Page 1825
Defining Terms......Page 1827
References......Page 1828
Plastic Design......Page 1830
Load and Resistance Factor Design......Page 1831
49.1 Introduction to Cold-Formed Steel Sections......Page 1832
Manufacturing Methods......Page 1833
Applications of Cold-Formed Steel......Page 1834
Properties of Steel......Page 1835
Properties of Corners......Page 1836
49.2 Local Buckling of Plate Elements......Page 1837
Local Buckling Analysis......Page 1840
Postbuckling Analysis......Page 1841
The Effective Width Concept......Page 1842
Classification of Elements......Page 1843
Stiffened Elements under Eccentric Compression......Page 1844
Unstiffened Elements......Page 1845
Intermediate Stiffeners......Page 1846
Reductions in Capacity for High Width-to-Thickness Ratios......Page 1847
Example 49.1......Page 1848
Solution:......Page 1849
Laterally Stable Beams......Page 1850
Moment Capacity......Page 1851
Plastic Bending Capacity......Page 1852
Web Crushing......Page 1853
Combined Effects......Page 1854
Combined Bending and Shear......Page 1855
Elastic Lateral Buckling Resistance Moment......Page 1856
Variation in Moment along a Beam......Page 1857
Solution: Calculation of Sectional Properties......Page 1858
Short Struts......Page 1862
Effective Lengths......Page 1863
Effects of Neutral Axis Shift......Page 1864
Torsional Flexural Buckling......Page 1865
Members under Combined Bending and Compression......Page 1866
Example 49.4......Page 1868
Solution:......Page 1869
Types of Fastener......Page 1870
Blind Rivets......Page 1871
49.6 Sheeting and Decking......Page 1872
Profiles for Roof Decking......Page 1873
Composite Panels......Page 1874
Uprights......Page 1875
Defining Terms......Page 1876
References......Page 1878
Further Information......Page 1879
50.
Structural Concrete Design......Page 1880
Properties of Concrete......Page 1881
Lightweight Concrete......Page 1882
Reinforcing Steel......Page 1883
50.2 Proportioning and Mixing Concrete......Page 1885
Admixtures......Page 1886
Analysis of Rectangular Beams with Tension Reinforcement Only......Page 1887
Equation for Mn and fMn : Tension Steel Elastic.......Page 1888
Analysis of Beams with Tension and Compression Reinforcement......Page 1889
Equation for Mn: Compression Steel Yields.......Page 1890
Reinforcement Ratios.......Page 1891
Flexural Strength......Page 1892
50.4 Columns under Bending and Axial Load......Page 1893
Slenderness Effects......Page 1894
Bresler Load Contour Method......Page 1897
50.5 Shear and Torsion......Page 1898
Shear Strength Provided by Concrete.......Page 1899
Torsional Strength Provided by Concrete.......Page 1900
Design of Stirrup Reinforcement for Shear and Torsion......Page 1901
Design of Deep Beams......Page 1902
Minimum Reinforcement.......Page 1904
Development of Bars in Compression......Page 1905
End-Bearing Splices.......Page 1906
50.7 Two-Way Systems......Page 1907
Design Procedures......Page 1909
Minimum Slab Thickness and Reinforcement......Page 1911
Direct Design Method......Page 1912
Equivalent Frame Method......Page 1913
Detailing......Page 1915
Analysis of Frames......Page 1917
Approximate Analysis......Page 1918
Limit Analysis......Page 1919
Flexural Members......Page 1920
Columns......Page 1921
Joints of Frames......Page 1922
50.9 Brackets and Corbels......Page 1924
50.10 Footings......Page 1925
Types of Footings......Page 1926
Size of Footings......Page 1927
Flexural Reinforcement and Footing Reinforcement......Page 1928
Bending Capacity of Column at Base......Page 1930
Development Length of the Reinforcing Bars......Page 1931
Wall Footings......Page 1932
Single-Column Spread Footings......Page 1933
Combined Footings......Page 1934
Two-Column Footings......Page 1935
Strip, Grid, and Mat Foundations......Page 1936
Footings on Piles......Page 1939
50.11 Walls......Page 1940
Basement Walls......Page 1941
Shear Walls......Page 1942
References......Page 1944
51.1 Introduction......Page 1946
Buildings......Page 1947
Case Studies......Page 1948
One Raffles Link, Singapore......Page 1949
51.2 Composite Construction Systems for Buildings......Page 1950
Composite Beams and Girders......Page 1952
Beams with Web Openings......Page 1953
Haunched Beams......Page 1954
Composite Trusses......Page 1955
Prestressed Composite Beams......Page 1956
Composite Column Systems......Page 1957
Mild Structural Steel......Page 1959
Confined Concrete......Page 1960
Reinforcing Steel......Page 1961
Shear Connectors......Page 1962
Serviceability......Page 1963
Strength......Page 1964
Vertical Shear Failure......Page 1965
AS 2327.1-1996......Page 1966
Vibrations......Page 1967
Strength......Page 1968
Partial Shear Connection (b < 1.0)......Page 1969
Influence of Shear on Flexural Strength......Page 1970
BS 5950, Part 3......Page 1971
Partial Shear Connection......Page 1972
Deformations......Page 1973
Plastic Neutral Axis in the Concrete Slab (Full Shear Connection, b = 1.0)......Page 1974
51.8 Composite Columns......Page 1975
Concrete-Filled Circular Hollow Sections......Page 1976
Effective Elastic Flexural Stiffness......Page 1979
Resistance of Members to Axial Compression......Page 1981
Combined Compression and Uniaxial Bending......Page 1982
Interaction Curve for Compression and Uniaxial Bending......Page 1983
Analysis of Bending Moments Due to Second-Order Effects......Page 1985
Resistance of Members under Combined Compression and Uniaxial Bending......Page 1986
Combined Compression and Biaxial Bending......Page 1987
Axially Loaded Column......Page 1988
Flexural Strength......Page 1989
Australian Standards AS 3600 and AS 4100......Page 1990
Post-Local Buckling......Page 1991
Steel Approach, AS 4100......Page 1993
Effects of Local Buckling......Page 1994
Core Braced Systems......Page 1995
Moment-Truss Systems......Page 1997
Outrigger and Belt Truss Systems......Page 1998
Frame Tube Systems......Page 1999
Steel-Concrete Composite Systems......Page 2001
Notation......Page 2003
References......Page 2005
Further Information......Page 2007
Definition of Reliability......Page 2008
52.2 Basic Probability Concepts......Page 2009
Expectation and Moments......Page 2010
Joint Distribution and Correlation Coefficient......Page 2013
Fundamental Case......Page 2014
Hasofer-Lind Reliability Index......Page 2016
Reliability Estimate by FORM......Page 2017
Reliability Estimate by Monte Carlo Simulation......Page 2018
Systems in Structural Reliability Context......Page 2019
First-Order Probability Bounds......Page 2021
Second-Order Probability Bounds......Page 2022
Applications to Structural Systems......Page 2023
Code Calibration Procedure......Page 2025
Evaluation of Load and Resistance Factors......Page 2027
References......Page 2029
Related Journals and Conferences......Page 2030
Section VII — Surveying Engineering
......Page 2031
53.
General Mathematical and Physical Concepts......Page 2034
Three-Dimensional Coordinate Systems......Page 2035
Slope of a Line between Two Points......Page 2036
Bearing......Page 2037
General Equation of a Line......Page 2038
Perpendicular Distance from the Origin to a Line......Page 2039
Angle between Two Lines......Page 2040
Intersection of a Line and a Circle......Page 2041
Segment (Less Than a Semicircle).......Page 2042
Equation of a Straight Line......Page 2044
Vector Operations......Page 2045
Vector Products......Page 2046
Types of Matrices......Page 2048
Basic Matrix Operations......Page 2050
Matrix Inverse......Page 2051
Matrix Inverse by Partitioning......Page 2053
The Eigenvalue Problem......Page 2054
Bilinear and Quadratic Forms......Page 2055
Two-Dimensional Linear Transformations......Page 2056
Four-Parameter Transformation.......Page 2058
Three-Dimensional Linear Transformations......Page 2059
Nonlinear Transformations......Page 2061
One Function of Two Variables......Page 2063
Two Functions of Two Variables Each......Page 2064
General Case of m Functions of n Variables......Page 2065
53.8 Map Projections......Page 2066
53.9 Observational Data Adjustment......Page 2070
Data Preprocessing......Page 2071
Least Squares Adjustment......Page 2072
Techniques of Least Squares......Page 2073
Test for Blunders or Outliers......Page 2077
Level Net......Page 2078
Defining Terms......Page 2079
Further Information......Page 2080
54.1 Introduction......Page 2081
Tacheometry......Page 2082
Taping......Page 2083
Example 54.1......Page 2084
Electronic Distance Measurement......Page 2085
Benchmark (BM)......Page 2086
Builder’s Level.......Page 2087
Automatic Compensator Instruments......Page 2088
Level Rods......Page 2089
Rod Targets......Page 2090
Instrument Adjustment......Page 2091
Leveling Closure......Page 2092
Precise Leveling......Page 2093
54.4 Angle Measurement......Page 2094
Direction Angles......Page 2096
Repeating Optical Theodolite......Page 2097
Total Stations......Page 2098
Fundamental Relationships......Page 2099
Prolonging a Straight Line......Page 2100
Horizontal Angles by Direction......Page 2101
Traverse......Page 2102
Partitioning Land......Page 2107
54.6 Horizontal Curves......Page 2108
54.7 Vertical Curves......Page 2111
General......Page 2114
Counting Squares......Page 2115
Volume Computations - Road Construction......Page 2116
Volume Computations - Building Excavation......Page 2117
References......Page 2118
Further Information......Page 2119
55.1 Introduction......Page 2120
Two-Dimensional......Page 2121
Three-Dimensional Polar Coordinates: Ellipsoidal......Page 2122
Transformations of Different Kind......Page 2123
Transformations of Same Kind......Page 2125
Curvilinear Coordinates and Transformations......Page 2126
Curvilinear Coordinate Changes in Terms of Cartesian Coordinate Changes......Page 2127
Curvilinear Coordinate Changes Due to a Similarity Transformation......Page 2128
55.3 Coordinate Frames Used in Geodesy and Some Additional Relationships......Page 2130
An Important Relationship Using an Orthogonal Transformation......Page 2131
Some Important Relationships Using Similarity and Datum Transformations......Page 2132
Inertial and Quasi-Inertial......Page 2133
Relation between Earth-Fixed and Inertial......Page 2134
Time and Sidereal Time......Page 2135
Polar Motion......Page 2136
Precession and Nutation......Page 2139
55.4 Mapping......Page 2140
Two Worlds......Page 2143
Conformal Mapping Using Cartesian Differential Coordinates......Page 2144
Conformal Mapping Using Polar Differential Coordinates......Page 2146
Coordinate Transformations and Conformal Mapping......Page 2149
Law of Inertia......Page 2150
Law of Gravitation......Page 2151
Potential......Page 2153
Numerical Solution of Three Second-Order Differential Equations......Page 2154
Analytical Solution of Three Second-Order Differential Equations......Page 2155
Orientation of the Orbital Ellipse......Page 2156
Reference Frame in the Plane of the Orbit......Page 2157
Transformation from Keplerian to Cartesian Orbital Elements......Page 2158
Transformation from Cartesian to Keplerian Orbital Elements......Page 2159
Orbit of a Satellite in a Noncentral Force Field......Page 2163
The Global Positioning System......Page 2164
Positioning......Page 2165
Limiting Factors......Page 2166
Pseudoranging......Page 2167
Phase (Carrier Wave) Differencing......Page 2168
GIS, Heights, and High-Accuracy Reference Networks......Page 2169
55.7 Gravity Field and Related Issues......Page 2170
Three-Dimensional Positioning: Geocentric Positions and Full Three-dimensional Control......Page 2172
Geodetic Reference System 1967......Page 2173
1987 Best Values and Secular Changes......Page 2178
WGS 84 Coordinate Frame......Page 2179
WGS 84 Earth Gravitational Model......Page 2180
Datum and Reference Frame Transformations......Page 2181
References......Page 2184
Further Information......Page 2185
Journals and Organizations......Page 2186
56.1 Basic Concepts in Photogrammetry......Page 2188
Relief and Tilt Displacement......Page 2189
Parallax and Stereo......Page 2191
56.2 Sensors and Platforms......Page 2192
56.3 Mathematics of Photogrammetry......Page 2193
Collinearity Equations......Page 2194
Coplanarity Equation......Page 2196
Scale Restraint Equation......Page 2197
Block Adjustment by Bundles......Page 2198
Block Adjustment by Models......Page 2199
Strip Formation and Block Adjustment by Polynomials......Page 2200
Image Coordinate Refinement......Page 2201
Space Rectangular Coordinates......Page 2202
Map Projections Coordinates......Page 2203
Stereo Restitution: Analogue, Analytical, Softcopy......Page 2204
Scanners......Page 2206
56.5 Photogrammetric Products......Page 2207
Random Data Points......Page 2208
Geographic Information Systems and Photogrammetry......Page 2209
Histogram Analysis and Modification......Page 2210
Filtering......Page 2211
Matching Techniques......Page 2212
Least Squares Matching......Page 2213
Epipolar Matching......Page 2214
Flight Planning......Page 2215
Control Points......Page 2216
Data Sources......Page 2218
Orbital Mechanics......Page 2219
Platform and Sensor Modeling......Page 2222
Multispectral Analysis......Page 2223
Change Detection......Page 2224
Further Information......Page 2225
57.1 Introduction......Page 2227
Applications......Page 2228
Geometry (Graphics)......Page 2231
Vector......Page 2232
Topology......Page 2234
Layer-Based Approaches......Page 2235
Relational Approaches......Page 2236
Object-Oriented Approaches......Page 2237
Security and Information Sharing in a GIS......Page 2239
Reference Coordinate Systems......Page 2240
Data Sources......Page 2241
Data Entry and Processing......Page 2242
Structure/Topology......Page 2243
Coupling to External Analyses/Applications......Page 2244
Data Interchange Standards and Formats......Page 2245
Displays and Reporting......Page 2246
Spatial Query Languages......Page 2247
Facilities Management......Page 2248
Development Tools (Means to Customize/Build New Applications)......Page 2249
References......Page 2250
Section VIII — Transportation Engineering......Page 2251
What Is Transportation Planning?......Page 2254
The Transportation Planning Process......Page 2255
58.2 Transportation Planning Models......Page 2256
Linear Regression Models......Page 2257
Origin and Destination Choice......Page 2258
Gravity Models......Page 2259
A General Probabilistic Model of Choice......Page 2261
Logit Models......Page 2262
Nested Logit Models......Page 2263
Automobile Commuters......Page 2264
Transit Travelers......Page 2266
Automobile Commuters......Page 2267
Combining the Models......Page 2268
The Decision to Travel......Page 2270
An Example of the Gravity Model......Page 2271
An Example of the Fratar Model......Page 2272
Mode Choice......Page 2274
Highway Path Choice......Page 2275
Transit Path Choice......Page 2277
The Models......Page 2278
Using the Models......Page 2279
Defining Terms......Page 2280
References......Page 2281
Further Information......Page 2284
59.1 The Air Transportation System......Page 2285
Civil Engineering and Airport Planning and Design......Page 2286
The Airport System: After September 11, 2001......Page 2287
Ownership and Management......Page 2289
59.2 The Airport Planning Process......Page 2290
Airport Issues and Existing Conditions......Page 2291
Large, Medium, and Small Hubs......Page 2292
Small Commercial and General Aviation Airports......Page 2297
59.4 Requirements Analysis: Capacity and Delay......Page 2299
Example 59.1......Page 2302
Airways, Airspace, and Air Traffic Control......Page 2304
Instrument Approaches......Page 2306
Minimum Altitude Calculations......Page 2307
Minimum Visibility......Page 2308
Weather Effects......Page 2309
Criteria for NAVAIDs and Weather Observation......Page 2310
Terminal Design Concepts......Page 2312
Size Estimate Using Gates......Page 2313
Size Estimate Using Typical Peak Hour Passenger......Page 2314
Size Estimate Using the Equivalent Aircraft Factor......Page 2316
Airport Airside Access......Page 2317
Airport Landside Access......Page 2318
Terminal Curbside Dimensions......Page 2319
Parking......Page 2320
Mandatory Control/Ownership......Page 2322
Obstacle Control......Page 2325
Orientation for Winds......Page 2328
Noise......Page 2330
Integrated Noise Model......Page 2333
59.8 Airside Layout and Design......Page 2335
Runway Length......Page 2338
Runway and Taxiway Width and Clearance Design Standards......Page 2341
Runway Gradients......Page 2342
Transverse Gradients......Page 2344
Drainage......Page 2345
Approach to the Runway......Page 2346
Runway Pavement Design......Page 2350
Airport Layout Plan......Page 2351
Other Plans......Page 2353
Defining Terms......Page 2355
Acronyms......Page 2357
References......Page 2358
Further Information......Page 2359
Purpose......Page 2361
Brief History......Page 2363
60.2 Systems and Planning Issues......Page 2365
Market Demand......Page 2367
California HSR Case: Expectations of the Final Plan of HSR Implementation in the State [25,27]......Page 2368
Corridor Development......Page 2369
Cost Estimate......Page 2370
Schedule Performance......Page 2371
Safety......Page 2372
Noise......Page 2373
Energy Conversion Efficiency......Page 2374
System-Wide Parameters......Page 2375
Geometric Design......Page 2376
Track and Ties......Page 2380
Ballast-Subgrade......Page 2381
Tilt Trains [12,32-35]......Page 2382
Train-Track Dynamics......Page 2383
France: The TGV [12,14]......Page 2387
Germany: The ICE [12,13]......Page 2388
Japan: The Shinkansen (Bullet Train) [12,19,65]......Page 2389
Other Examples......Page 2391
60.7 Magnetic Levitation Technology......Page 2392
60.8 Conclusions......Page 2396
Terminology......Page 2397
References......Page 2399
Further Information......Page 2402
Bus......Page 2403
Metro......Page 2404
Line Capacity......Page 2405
Transit Financing......Page 2406
Fundamental Operating Parameters and Relationships......Page 2407
Basic Schedule Design......Page 2408
Example 61.1......Page 2410
61.4 Frequency Determination......Page 2413
Deficit Function Analysis......Page 2415
Network Analysis......Page 2416
Automated Scheduling......Page 2417
Interlining and Through-Routing......Page 2418
Pulse (Timed Transfer) Systems......Page 2419
Alternating Deadheading......Page 2420
Short-Turning......Page 2421
Predicting Changes......Page 2422
Revenue Forecasting and Pricing......Page 2424
61.7 Operating Cost Models......Page 2425
Operations Monitoring......Page 2426
Passenger Counting......Page 2427
Service Standards......Page 2428
61.9 Ridership Estimation and Sampling......Page 2430
Direct Estimation with Simple Random Sampling......Page 2431
Using Conversion Factors......Page 2432
References......Page 2433
Further Information......Page 2435
62.1 Introduction......Page 2436
62.2 Pavement Types and Materials......Page 2437
Base Course......Page 2438
Subbase Course......Page 2440
Rigid Pavement......Page 2441
62.3 Traffic Loading Analysis for Highway Pavements......Page 2442
Traffic Stream Composition......Page 2443
Traffic-Loading Computation......Page 2444
Example 62.2......Page 2445
Directional Split......Page 2451
Formula for Computing Total Design Loading......Page 2452
Computation of Traffic Loading......Page 2453
Equal Stress ESWL......Page 2455
Equal Deflection ESWL......Page 2457
Reliability......Page 2458
Effective Roadbed Soil Resilient Modulus......Page 2459
Pavement Layer Modulus......Page 2460
Thickness Requirements......Page 2461
Example 62.9......Page 2463
Subgrade Resilient Modulus......Page 2464
Example 62.12......Page 2465
Pavement Thickness Requirements......Page 2468
Example 62.14......Page 2471
Mechanistic Approach for Flexible Pavement Design......Page 2474
62.6 Structural Design of Rigid Pavements......Page 2476
Pavement Material Properties......Page 2477
Effective Modulus of Subgrade Reaction......Page 2478
Load Transfer Coefficient......Page 2479
Example 62.17......Page 2480
Reinforcement Design for JRCP......Page 2481
Longitudinal Reinforcement Design for CRCP......Page 2483
PCA Thickness Design Procedure for Rigid Highway Pavements......Page 2488
Example 62.20......Page 2489
FAA Method for Rigid Airport Pavement Design......Page 2491
FAA Thickness Design Procedure for Rigid Airport Pavements......Page 2493
FAA Joint Spacing and Reinforcement Design for Rigid Airport Pavements......Page 2495
62.7 Pavement Overlay Design......Page 2496
AI Effective Thickness Approach......Page 2497
Example 62.24......Page 2498
AI Deflection-Based Approach......Page 2499
Example 62.25......Page 2500
AI Effective Thickness Procedure......Page 2501
AI Deflection-Based Procedure......Page 2502
Example 62.26......Page 2503
PCA Design Procedure for Concrete Overlay on Concrete Highway Pavement......Page 2504
Design of Unbonded Overlay......Page 2505
Design of Bonded Overlay......Page 2506
FAA Design Procedure for Flexible Overlay on Flexible Airport Pavement......Page 2507
FAA Design Procedure for Flexible Overlay on Concrete Airport Pavement......Page 2509
FAA Design Procedure for Concrete Overlay on Concrete Airport Pavement......Page 2510
References......Page 2511
Further Information......Page 2512
63.1 Introduction......Page 2514
Highway Types......Page 2515
Traffic Characteristics......Page 2516
Bicycle Facilities......Page 2518
Stopping Sight Distance......Page 2519
Passing Sight Distance......Page 2520
Decision Sight Distance......Page 2521
Design Heights for Sight Distances......Page 2522
Simple Horizontal Curves......Page 2523
Simple Vertical Curves......Page 2524
Maximum Superelevation......Page 2525
Example 63.2......Page 2526
Method of Attaining Superelevation......Page 2528
Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves......Page 2529
Vertical Alignment......Page 2530
Climbing Lanes......Page 2531
Example 63.5......Page 2532
Cross Section Elements......Page 2533
Traveled Way......Page 2534
Curbs......Page 2535
Modern Roundabouts......Page 2536
Railroad-Highway Grade Crossings......Page 2537
Case B1......Page 2538
Example 63.6......Page 2539
Interchanges......Page 2540
Individual Alignments......Page 2541
Cross Sections and Intersections......Page 2542
Design Aids......Page 2543
Compound Horizontal Curves......Page 2544
Three-Dimensional Alignments......Page 2545
63.5 Emerging Design Concepts......Page 2546
Smart Design......Page 2547
63.7 Summary: Key Ingredients......Page 2548
References......Page 2549
Further Information......Page 2551
64.1 Introduction......Page 2553
Traffic Flow Characteristics......Page 2554
Fundamental Traffic Flow Relationship......Page 2555
Estimating Space-Mean Speed and Traffic Density from Spot Observations......Page 2556
Spot Observations......Page 2558
64.4 Relationships between Volume, Speed, and Density......Page 2559
Theories......Page 2560
Field Observations......Page 2561
Shock Waves......Page 2563
Cumulative Counts......Page 2565
Bottleneck with Uninterrupted Traffic......Page 2567
Unsignalized Intersections......Page 2568
64.6 Highway Capacity......Page 2569
Unsignalized Intersections......Page 2570
Signalized Intersections......Page 2571
64.7 Traffic Quality......Page 2572
64.8 Traffic Control......Page 2574
References......Page 2575
65.
Intelligent Transportation Systems......Page 2577
65.2 Role of ITS in Tomorrow’s Transportation Systems......Page 2578
Productivity......Page 2579
Advanced Traffic Management Systems......Page 2580
Advanced Vehicle Control Systems......Page 2581
Advanced Public Transportation Systems......Page 2582
Advanced Rural Transportation Systems......Page 2583
65.4 ITS Restructuring and Progress......Page 2584
65.5 What We Have Learned [32]......Page 2586
How It Was Done......Page 2587
Traveler Information Systems......Page 2588
Commercial Vehicle Operations......Page 2589
Conclusions......Page 2590
Systems......Page 2591
Mainstreaming......Page 2592
The Positioning of ITS......Page 2593
65.6 Benefits of ITS......Page 2594
Taxonomy and Measures of Effectiveness......Page 2596
Intelligent Infrastructure and Intelligent Vehicles......Page 2601
ITS Program Strategies......Page 2602
Key Activities and Milestones......Page 2603
Rural and Statewide ITS Infrastructure Program Area......Page 2604
Key Activities and Milestones......Page 2605
Key Activities and Milestones......Page 2606
Key Activities and Milestones......Page 2607
The National ITS Architecture and ITS Standards......Page 2608
Emerging Program Activities......Page 2609
Update of ITS User Services......Page 2610
Programmatic Theme 1......Page 2611
The Stakeholders......Page 2612
Nonrecurring Congestion: Incidents......Page 2613
Incidents......Page 2614
Formulation of Incident Detection Problem......Page 2615
Need for All Incident Management Stages to Perform......Page 2617
References......Page 2623
Further Information......Page 2625
Appendix......Page 2628
66.1 Introduction......Page 2638
The Depreciation Approach for Highway Asset Valuation......Page 2639
Highway Physical Facilities......Page 2640
System Objectives......Page 2641
Usefulness of Pavement Management Systems......Page 2642
PMS Data Types......Page 2643
Sample Size Requirements for Data Collection......Page 2646
Defining Pavement Segments for Data Collection......Page 2647
Data Collection Technologies......Page 2650
Project Selection Methods......Page 2652
Bridge Management Systems......Page 2654
Data Collection and Database Development......Page 2655
Data Analysis......Page 2656
Life Cycle Cost Analysis......Page 2658
Identification of Promising Alternatives......Page 2659
Assignment of Relative Weights......Page 2660
Maintenance Management Systems......Page 2661
Components and Features of a Maintenance Management System......Page 2662
Maintenance Needs Assessment......Page 2663
Integration......Page 2664
Sophistication......Page 2665
Safety Management System......Page 2666
66.5 General Requirements of Highway Asset Management System......Page 2667
Defining Terms......Page 2668
References......Page 2669
67.1 The Environmental Process......Page 2672
Transportation Noise......Page 2673
Legislation and Regulations Affecting Transportation Noise......Page 2677
Estimating Transportation Noise Impacts......Page 2678
Mitigation of Transportation Noise......Page 2684
Transportation and Air Quality......Page 2686
Air Quality Legislation and Regulations......Page 2687
Modeling of Air Pollutants from Transportation......Page 2690
Water Quality as Related to Transportation......Page 2695
Modeling of Water Impacts......Page 2696
Ecological Impacts......Page 2698
67.3 Summation......Page 2699
References......Page 2700
Further Information......Page 2703
Appendix Mathematics, Symbols, and Physical Constants
......Page 2704
Greek Alphabet......Page 2705
Definitions of SI Base Units......Page 2706
SI Derived Units with Special Names and Symbols......Page 2707
Conversion Constants and Multipliers......Page 2708
Conversion Factors - General*......Page 2709
Physical Constants......Page 2710
Numerical Constants......Page 2711
Elementary Algebra and Geometry......Page 2712
Logarithms......Page 2713
Progression......Page 2714
Polar Form......Page 2715
Cubic......Page 2716
Geometry......Page 2717
Determinants, Matrices, and Linear Systems of Equations......Page 2718
Properties of Determinants......Page 2719
Operations......Page 2720
Inverse Matrix......Page 2721
Solution by Determinants (Cramer’s Rule)......Page 2722
Trigonometry......Page 2723
z-Transform and the Laplace Transform......Page 2724
Inverse Trigonometric Functions......Page 2727
Distance between Two Points; Slope......Page 2728
Equations of Straight Lines......Page 2729
Distance from a Point to a Line......Page 2730
Parabola......Page 2731
Ellipse......Page 2732
Hyperbola (e > 1)......Page 2733
Translation......Page 2734
Series......Page 2735
Series of Functions......Page 2736
Binomial......Page 2739
Taylor......Page 2740
Exponential......Page 2741
Trigonometric......Page 2742
Radius of Curvature......Page 2743
Taylor’s Formula......Page 2744
Examples......Page 2745
Functions of Two Variables......Page 2746
Integral Calculus......Page 2747
Mean Value of a Function......Page 2748
Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates......Page 2749
Double Integration......Page 2750
Magnitude of F......Page 2751
Vector Differentiation......Page 2753
Planar Motion in Polar Coordinates......Page 2754
Laplace Transforms......Page 2755
Table of Laplace Transforms......Page 2756
Trigonometric Identities......Page 2757
z-Transforms of Sampled Functions......Page 2758
Bessel Functions......Page 2759
Legendre Polynomials......Page 2761
Orthogonality......Page 2763
Harmonic Mean......Page 2764
Probability......Page 2765
Mean of Binomially Distributed Variable......Page 2766
Example......Page 2767
Tables of Probability and Statistics......Page 2768
Table of Derivatives......Page 2773
Additional Relations with Derivatives......Page 2775
Integrals......Page 2776
Forms Containing (a + bx)......Page 2777
The Fourier Transforms......Page 2779
Fourier Transforms......Page 2780
Finite Sine Transforms......Page 2781
Finite Cosine Transforms......Page 2782
Fourier Cosine Transforms......Page 2783
Fourier Transforms......Page 2784
Secant Method for Solving f (x) = 0......Page 2785
Uniform Interval h......Page 2786
Interpolation......Page 2788
Steffenson’s Formula......Page 2789
Bessel’s Formula (Unmodified)......Page 2790
Newton’s Divided Difference Formula......Page 2791
Reciprocal Differences......Page 2792
Marginal and Conditional Probability......Page 2794
Probability Function (Discrete Case)......Page 2795
Expected Value......Page 2796
Change of Base......Page 2797
Examples......Page 2798
Associations and Societies......Page 2799
Ethics......Page 2806
Guidelines to Practice Under the Fundamental Canons of Ethics......Page 2807