The Citron Compendium: The Citron (Etrog) Citrus medica L.: Science and Tradition

Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
Part I Citron Biology
1 The Biology of the Citron (Citrus medica L., Rutaceae-Aurantioideae-Aurantieae), its Hybrids and their Allies
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Family Rutaceae
1.3 The Genus Citrus
1.3.1 Morphology, Anatomy and Phytochemistry
1.3.2 Pollination and Dispersal
1.3.3 Phylogeny
1.3.4 Palaeobotany and Archaeological Records
1.4 The Citron, Citrus medica
1.5 Citrus Classification
1.6 The Role of Citrus medica in Other Citrus Crops
1.7 Huanglongbing and the Future of the Citron
Appendix—Formal Classification
Citrus medica—Citrons
Commercial Citrus with Citron Parentage and Grown in the Mediterranean
References
2 Citron Genomics
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Citrus Genomics Overview
2.3 Sequencing Genomes of Major Citrus Groups
2.4 Citron is One of the 10 Ancestral Citrus Species, and a Parent of Many Acid Citrus Types
2.4.1 Genetic Studies Using Markers Derived from Nuclear and Chloroplast Sequences
2.5 Disease Resistance in Citrons
2.6 Polyembryony
2.7 Anthocyanin Production and Acidity in Citrons
2.8 Genes Determining Fruit Shape
2.9 Perspective
References
3 Phytochemistry of the Citron
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Phenylpropanoids
3.3 Isoprenoids
3.3.1 Terpenes
3.3.2 Limonoids
3.3.3 Carotenoids
3.4 Chemotaxonomy of Citron
References
Part II Cultivation and Production
4 Selected Aspects of Commercial Production in Etrog Orchards
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Establishing an Etrog Orchard
4.2.1 Selection of Land
4.2.2 Preparation and Planting of Etrog Saplings
4.3 Irrigation and Fertilization of Commercial Etrog Orchards
4.4 Droughting Etrog Trees to Induce Flowering
4.5 Treatments for Pitam Maintenance
4.6 Treatments for Fruitlets and Young Fruits
4.7 Commercial Considerations and Calculations in Establishing an Etrog Orchard
4.8 Yield
4.9 Conclusions
References
5 Preserving Etrog Quality After Harvest: Doctrine and Practice
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Treatments to Prevent Water Loss
5.3 Regulating Peel Color in Etrogim
References
6 Citron Arthropod Pests in the Mediterranean, Their Origin and Notes on Their Biology and Management
6.1 The Origin of Citron Arthropod Pests
6.2 Mites
6.2.1 Aceria sheldoni (Ewing)
6.2.2 Brevipalpus californicus (Banks)
6.2.3 Eutetranychus orientalis (Klein)
6.2.4 Panonychus citri (McGregor)
6.2.5 Phyllocoptruta oleivora (Ashmead)
6.2.6 Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks)
6.2.7 Tetranychus urticae Koch
6.3 Thrips
6.3.1 Chaetanaphothrips orchidii (Moulton)
6.3.2 Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande)
6.3.3 Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood
6.4 Leafhoppers
6.4.1 Asymmetrasca decedens (Paoli)
6.5 Whiteflies
6.5.1 Aleurocanthus spiniferus (Quaintance)
6.6 Aphids
6.6.1 Aphis craccivora Koch
6.6.2 Aphis gossypii Glover
6.6.3 Aphis spiraecola Patch
6.6.4 Myzus persicae (Sulzer)
6.6.5 Toxoptera aurantii (Boyer de Fonscolombe)
6.7 Scale Insects
6.7.1 Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell)
6.7.2 Coccus hesperidum Linnaeus
6.7.3 Icerya purchasi Maskell
6.7.4 Parlatoria pergandii Comstock
6.7.5 Planococcus citri (Risso)
6.8 Fruit Flies
6.8.1 Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann)
6.9 Fruit Moths
6.9.1 Apomyelois ceratoniae (Zeller)
6.9.2 Cryptoblabes gnidiella (Millière)
6.9.3 Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton
6.9.4 Prays citri (Millière)
6.9.5 Thaumatotibia leucotreta (Meyrick)
6.10 The Origin of Citron Pests
6.11 Pest Management in Citron Orchards
6.12 Serious Coming Threats
6.12.1 Aculops pelekassi (Keifer)
6.12.2 Trioza erytreae (Del Guercio) and Diaphorina citri Kuwayama, Vectors of the Citrus Greening Disease
6.12.3 Anoplophora chinensis (Forster)
References
7 Diseases of Etrog Citron and Other Citrus Trees
7.1 Introduction
7.2 A Brief History of Plant Pathology with an Emphasis on Citrus
7.2.1 The Impact of Phytophthora Epidemics on World Citrus
7.3 Fungal and Fungal-Like Diseases
7.4 Major Fungal Diseases of Etrog
7.4.1 Mal Secco
7.4.2 Citrus Diseases Caused by Phytophthora
7.5 Fungal Diseases of Leaves and Fruit
7.5.1 Alternaria Brown Spot
7.5.2 Anthracnose
7.5.3 Septoria Spot
7.5.4 Melanose
7.5.5 Greasy Spot
7.5.6 Citrus Gray Mold
7.6 Root Diseases
7.6.1 Armillaria Root Rot
7.6.2 Dry Root Rot
7.7 Bacterial Diseases
7.7.1 Citrus Blast and Black Pit
7.7.2 Citrus Stubborn Disease/Little-Leaf (Alelet)
7.8 Virus Diseases
7.8.1 Tristeza
7.8.2 Citrus Variegation/Citrus Crinkly Leaf/Citrus Leaf Rugose
7.8.3 Concave Gum
7.8.4 Psorosis
7.8.5 Citrus Leaf Blotch
7.8.6 Citrus Vein Enation
7.9 Citrus Viroid Diseases—The Etrog Connection
7.9.1 Citrus Exocortis Viroid
7.9.2 Cachexia
7.9.3 Citrus Bent Leaf
7.9.4 Citrus Dwarfing
7.10 Citrus Diseases Exotic to the Mediterranean Area
7.10.1 Citrus Black Spot
7.10.2 Citrus Scab
7.10.3 Citrus Bacterial Canker
7.10.4 Citrus Variegated Chlorosis
7.10.5 Citrus Greening—Huánglóngbìng
7.10.6 Witches’ Broom
7.10.7 Citrus Chlorotic Dwarf
7.10.8 Citrus Yellow Vein Clearing
7.10.9 Citrus Tatter Leaf
7.10.10 Leprosis
7.10.11 Citrus Sudden Death
7.10.12 Satsuma Dwarf and Related Diseases
7.10.13 Citrus Yellow Mosaic
7.10.14 Citrus Bark Cracking
7.10.15 Citrus Viroid V
7.10.16 Citrus Viroid VI
7.10.17 Citrus Viroid VII
7.11 Conclusions
References
8 The Citron (Citrus medica L.) in China
8.1 Introduction
8.2 History and Culture
8.3 Nomenclature
8.4 Current Citron Cultivation in China
8.4.1 Propagation
8.4.2 Diseases, Pests, and Freeze Damage
8.4.3 Medicinal Uses and Properties
8.4.4 Ornamental Cultivation
8.4.5 Culinary Uses and Processing
8.5 Major Cultivars of Chinese Citron and Select Citron Hybrids
8.5.1 Common (Non-fingered) Citron Cultivars
8.5.2 Fingered Citron Cultivars
8.5.3 Types Intermediate Between Common and Fingered Citron
8.5.4 “Wild” Citrons
8.5.5 Citron Hybrids
8.6 Germplasm Status; Regional and Global Perspective
References
9 The Citron in Italy and Its Cultivation in Calabria
9.1 Origin and History
9.2 The Citron in Calabria
9.3 The Jewish Tradition
9.4 Citron Cultivars
9.4.1 Acid Citrons
9.4.2 Sweet Citrons
9.4.3 Semi-acid Citrons
9.4.4 Citron Lemons
9.5 Chemical and Nutraceutical Characterization of ‘Liscia di Diamante’ Fruit
9.5.1 Chemical Constituents
9.5.2 Antioxidant Properties
9.5.3 Potential Health Effects
9.6 Citron Cultivation in Calabria
9.6.1 Rootstocks
9.6.2 Farming Systems in Calabria Agriculture
9.7 Consortia and Cooperatives. A Troubled History
References
10 The Citron in Corsica
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Citron in the Ancient and Medieval Western Mediterranean
10.3 Beginnings of Corsican Citron Cultivation
10.4 ‘Corsican’ Citron Morphology
10.5 The Genetic Origin of ‘Corsican’ Citron
10.6 ‘Citron Fever’
10.7 Corsican Citron Plantings and Production
10.8 Citron Growing Areas
10.9 Historical Horticultural Practices
10.10 Diseases, Pests, and Freezes
10.11 Brining and Candying
10.12 Structure of the Citron Trade
10.13 Corsican Confectioners
10.14 Causes of the Decline
10.15 ‘Vittime’: Citrons Harvested for Jewish Ritual Use
10.16 Citron Cultivation on Corsica Today
10.17 Citron Liqueur (Cédratine)
10.18 Citrons Other than ‘Corsican’ on Corsica
10.19 Bioindexing Using ‘Etrog’ Citron
10.20 The Citron in Corsican Culture
10.21 Citron’s Place on Corsica Today
References
11 The Citron in the United States
11.1 Introduction of the Citron and Its Spread in Colonial America
11.2 Increase in Consumption of Candied Citron
11.3 Beginnings of Citron Cultivation in California
11.4 The “Citron of Commerce”
11.5 Attempts to Import Elite Mediterranean Citron Cultivars
11.6 Early 20th Century Citron Plantings in California
11.7 Demand for Etrogs During World War I
11.8 California Citron Cultivation, 1923–95
11.9 A Successful Etrog Grower in Central California
11.10 Citron Germplasm in California
11.11 Fingered Citron: From Asia to California
11.12 Citron Cultivation in Florida
11.13 Effects of Tariff Rates on Citron Cultivation and Processing in the United States
11.14 Rise of Citron Cultivation in Puerto Rico
11.15 Decline of Citron Cultivation in Puerto Rico
11.16 Perspectives
References
12 The Citron in Mediterranean Food and Beverages
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Etrog Citron Candying Procedure
12.3 Citron Jam
12.4 Sweet and Savory Food: From Tradition to Gastronomic Innovation
12.5 Savory Dishes
12.6 Liqueurs and Syrups
References
Part III Tradition
13 ‘Fruit of the Goodly Trees’: The Talmudic Discourse on the Etrog Citron
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Structure of the Etrog Citron
13.3 Identifying the ‘Fruit of a Hadar Tree’
13.4 Etrog Paragraphs in the Mishnah
13.5 Dryness
13.6 Defects and Blemishes
13.7 Chazazit—Scab
13.8 Pitma and Okets
13.9 Peeled
13.10 Size of the Etrog
13.11 Color Disqualifications
13.12 Epilogue
References
14 Theophrastus to the Present: The Citron in Medicine
14.1 Introduction
References
15 The Etrog Citron in Art
15.1 Introduction
15.2 The Etrog in Jewish Art in Antiquity and the Byzantine Period
15.3 The Etrog in Christian Art in the Land of Israel
15.4 Etrogim in Mosaics of the Transjordan
15.5 The Place of the Etrog in Byzantine Art
15.6 The Etrog in Muslim Era Art
15.7 Etrog Illustrations in Ashkenazi Manuscripts
15.8 The Etrog in Christian Renaissance Paintings
15.9 The Etrog in Works by Jewish Artists in the Modern Era
15.10 A Box for the Etrog
15.11 Conclusion
References
16 The Etrog Citron in Rabbinic and Kabbalistic Literature
16.1 In Antiquity
16.2 In Kabbalah
16.3 In Folklore
16.4 In the Community
16.5 Joining the Species
References
17 From ‘an Etrog’ to ‘One’s Etrog’: A Literary Analysis of S. Y. Agnon’s Story
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Between the Etrog and ‘Etrogo’: A Study of S. Y. Agnon’s Story
17.3 The Story
Part IV History
18 The History of Citron: Botanical Remains and Ancient Art and Texts
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Archaeo-Botanical Evidence
18.3 The Citron in the Hebrew Bible and Jewish Tradition
18.4 The Citron in Greco-Roman Sources
18.5 Ancient Art Artifacts
18.6 Summary
References
19 The Etrog Citron Trail to the North: Genoa and Trieste
References
20 The Corfu Etrog Citron Polemic
20.1 The Corfu Etrog Enters the Market
20.2 The Controversy in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century
20.3 The 1846 Controversy
20.4 Those Who Banned the Corfu Etrog
20.5 Those Permitting the Corfu Etrog in 1846
20.6 End of the 1846 Controversy
20.7 In the Wake of the Controversy
20.8 The 1874–1878 Controversy
20.9 Preferring Israeli Etrogim Over Corfu Etrogim
20.10 The Continued Controversy Over Corfu Etrogim
20.11 Pamphlets for and Against
20.12 Israeli Etrogim
20.13 Validity of Israeli Etrogim in General, and Jaffa Etrogim in Particular
20.14 Rabbi Chaim Elazar Wachs and Israel’s Etrogim
20.15 Quenching the Controversy in Europe and Israel
20.16 The Controversy in the 1880s
20.17 Hovevei Zion and Israeli Etrogim
20.18 The Corfu Etrog in Poland’s Hassidic World
20.19 The End of the Controversy and the Corfu Blood Libel
References
21 The Grafted Etrog Citron Controversy
21.1 Introduction
21.2 What is Grafting?
21.3 Grafting in Halakhah
21.4 Grafting the Etrog: A Problem Arises
21.5 Why is Grafting not Mentioned in Talmudic Sources?
21.6 The Main Halakhic Positions
21.7 The Mystery of Grafting
21.8 Identifying the Grafted Fruits: Distinctive Features and Credibility
21.9 The Grafted Etrog Lineage
21.10 Etrogim of the Land of Israel and the Grafting Dilemma
21.11 The Search for the Original Etrog
21.12 Etrog Hybridized with Other Citrus Species
21.13 The Situation Today
References
22 Etrog Citrons of the Land of Israel in Modern Times
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Etrog Grafting as a Motive for Etrog Cultivation in the Modern Era
22.3 The Introduction of Greek Etrogim to the Land of Israel
22.4 Embellishment of the Old, Traditional Etrog with Foreign Etrogim
22.5 Rav Kook and Etrog Growing in Eretz Israel
22.6 Growing Traditional Land of Israel Etrogim
22.7 Maharil Diskin––Braverman Etrog
22.8 Globman-Kibilewitz and Wadi Kelt Etrogim
22.9 Jericho Etrogim
22.10 Urdang (Hadera) Etrogim
22.11 Chazon Ish Etrogim
22.12 Shlomai Etrogim
22.13 Features of the Original Land of Israel Etrog
22.14 Summary
References
Pictorial Album of Israeli Etrog Citron Cultivars
Glossary*