The Cambridge Handbook of Germanic Linguistics

The Cambridge Handbook of Germanic Linguistics
Contents
List of Figures
List of Maps
List of Tables
List of Contributors
Acknowledgments
Germanic Languages: An Overview
I.1 Introduction
I.2 West Germanic
I.3 North Germanic
I.4 The Organization of This Handbook
I.5 The Future Study of Germanic Languages
References
Part I: Phonology
1 Phonological Processes in Germanic Languages
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Assimilation
1.3 Dissimilation
1.4 Epenthesis
1.5 Deletion
1.6 Coalescence, Vowel Reduction, Strengthening, and Weakening
1.7 Other Processes
References
Online Reference
2 Germanic Syllable Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Germanic Syllable Onsets
2.2.1 Onsetless Syllables and Simple Onsets
2.2.2 Complex Onsets
2.2.3 sClusters
2.3 Codas and Appendices
2.3.1 Monosegmental Codas
2.3.2 Biconsonantal Codas
2.3.3 Appendices
2.4 Syllable Boundaries and Syllable Contact
2.5 Conclusion
References
3 The Role of Foot Structure in Germanic
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Foot Formation and the Foot-Based Template in Germanic
3.2.1 Moraic Trochees
3.2.2 Syllabic Trochees
3.2.3 Moraic Versus Syllabic Trochees
3.2.4 Foot-Based Templates
3.3 The Role of the Foot in Phonological Patterns
3.3.1 Cluster Simplification in Medial Onsets
3.3.2 Foot-Medial Consonant Lenition: Variability of Segmental Realization
3.3.3 Vowel Reduction in Nonhead Branches of Feet
3.3.4 Shaping Phonological Patterns: The Trochee as a Prosodic Template
3.4 The Role of the Trochee in Shaping Lexical Classes and Patterns: German and Dutch Plurals
3.4.1 Plurals in Standard German and Dutch
3.4.2 Plurals in German Dialects
3.5 Reinterpreting Stress-Based Analyses in Terms of the Foot: Vowel Balance
3.6 Conclusion
References
4 Word Stress in Germanic
4.1 Germanic Languages and the Typology of Word Stress
4.2 Germanic Languages with Rightmost Main Stress
4.2.1 Placement of Rightmost Main Stress
4.2.2 Placement of Secondary Stress
4.3 Germanic Languages with Leftmost Main Stress: Icelandic and Faroese
References
5 Quantity in Germanic Languages
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Contrastive Quantity for Consonants and Vowels
5.2.1 Varieties of Swedish
5.2.2 Varieties of Norwegian
5.2.3 Swiss German (High and Highest Alemannic)
5.3 Complementary Quantity
5.3.1 Complementary Quantity in Swedish
5.3.2 Complementary Quantity in Central Bavarian
5.4 Contrastive Quantity for Vowels Only
5.4.1 Vowel Quantity in German
5.4.2 Vowel Quantity in English
5.4.3 Vowel Quantity in Dutch
5.5 Conclusion
References
6 Germanic Laryngeal Phonetics and Phonology
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The Basics
6.3 Theory and Analysis
6.4 Comparative Overview
6.4.1 East Germanic
6.4.2 North Germanic
6.4.3 West Germanic
6.4.3.1 Yiddish
6.4.3.2 West Frisian
6.4.3.3 Central German Dialects
6.4.3.4 Swiss German
6.5 Further Issues
6.6 Conclusions
References
7 Tone Accent in North and West Germanic
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Tone Accent in West Germanic
7.2.1 The Present-Day Accent Contrast
7.2.1.1 Basic Patterns
7.2.1.2 Synchronic Tonal Typology
7.2.1.3 Synchronic Lexical Distribution
7.2.1.4 Theoretical Analysis
7.2.2 Diachronic Development
7.3 Tone Accent in North Germanic
7.3.1 The Present-Day Accent Contrast
7.3.1.1 Basic Patterns
7.3.1.2 Synchronic Tonal Typology
7.3.1.3 Synchronic Distribution
7.3.1.4 Theoretical Analysis
7.3.2 Diachronic Development
References
8 Intonation in Germanic
8.1 Introduction
8.2 The Fundamentals of Intonation Research
8.2.1 Analyzing Intonation
8.2.2 The Form and Meaning of Intonation
8.2.3 Central Terms
8.2.4 Data Sources
8.3 Declaratives
8.3.1 German
8.3.2 Dutch
8.3.3 English
8.3.4 Icelandic
8.3.5 Danish
8.3.6 Norwegian
8.3.7 Swedish
8.4 Interrogatives
8.5 Special Contours
8.6 Listener Judgments
8.7 Outlook
References
Part II: Morphology and Agreement Systems
9 Verbal Inflectional Morphology in Germanic
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Morphosyntactic Categories of Germanic Verbal Inflection
9.2.1 Tense
9.2.2 Subject Agreement
9.2.3 Mood
9.2.3.1 The Imperative
9.2.3.2 The Subjunctive
9.2.4 Voice
9.2.5 Aspect
9.2.6 Negation
9.2.7 Nonfinite Verb Forms
9.3 Types of Exponents
9.4 Periphrastic Constructions
9.4.1 The Perfect
9.4.2 The Future
9.4.3 The Conditional
9.4.4 The Progressive and Other Aspectual Constructions
9.4.5 Passive Constructions
9.5 Inflectional Classes
9.5.1 Strong Versus Weak Verbs
9.5.2 Strong-Verb Ablaut Classes
9.5.3 Weak Verbs
9.5.3.1 Weak Verb Classes
9.5.4 Preterite-Present Verbs
9.6 Derived Verbs
References
10 Inflectional Morphology: Nouns
10.1 Introduction
10.2 The Proto-Germanic Noun System
10.3 The North-Germanic Noun Systems
10.3.1 Icelandic – Increase of Complexity by Accumulated Phonological Change
10.3.2 Swedish – Decrease of Complexity
10.3.3 Danish – Representing the Most Simplified Scandinavian Noun Inflection
10.4 The West-Germanic Noun Systems
10.4.1 German and Luxembourgish – Morphological Umlaut
10.4.2 Frisian: Conservation of Breaking
10.4.3 Dutch – Elimination of Umlaut, Prosodic Constraints
10.4.4 English: The Simplest Noun Inflection System
10.5 Findings and Further Topics
10.5.1 Overall Complexity
10.5.2 How to Deal with Umlaut – Different Strategies
10.5.3 Relative Strength of Lexical and Grammatical Morphemes
10.5.4 Gender As a Determinant of Noun Inflection
10.6 Conclusion
References
11 Principles of Word Formation
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Compounding
11.2.1 Linking Elements
11.2.2 Affixoids
11.3 Derivation
11.3.1 Nonnative Affixation
11.3.2 Affix Substitution
11.4 Conversion
11.5 Reduplication
11.6 Prosodic Morphology
11.7 Abbreviation and Blending
11.8 Numerals
11.9 Sources of Information
References
12 Grammatical Gender in Modern Germanic Languages
12.1 Grammatical Gender
12.2 Lexical Gender Systems in Germanic
12.2.1 Three-Gender Systems
12.2.2 Two-Gender Systems
12.2.3 Gender Loss
12.3 Gender Assignment
12.4 Pronominal Gender and Semantic Reorganization of Gender Systems
12.5 The Interaction of Grammatical Gender and Inflection
12.6 Conclusions
References
13 Case in Germanic
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Inventories
13.3 Distributions
13.4 Interactions
References
14 Complementizer Agreement
14.1 Introduction
14.2 The Complementizer Agreement-Paradigm
14.3 A Closer Inspection of the Relation between the CA-Paradigm and the Verbal Agreement Paradigm: Double Agreement
14.3.1 Double Agreement
14.3.2 The Defectivity of the CA-Paradigm
14.3.3 Summary
14.4 CA, Clitics and Pro-Drop
14.5 CA and Linear Adjacency
14.5.1 Agreement with Coordinated Subjects and External Possessors
14.5.2 Interveners between Complementizer and Subject
14.6 Syntactic Distribution of CA
14.7 Summary
References
Part III: Syntax
15 VO-/OV-Base Ordering
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Syntactic Correlates of the Base-Ordering Types
15.2.1 Particle Verbs
15.2.2 Resultatives
15.2.3 The Order of Auxiliaries
15.2.4 VP-Medial Adverbs
15.2.5 A Constraint on Phrases Left-Adjoined to Head-Initial Phrases
15.2.6 VP-Internal Scrambling
15.2.7 Verbal Clusters in OV – Stacked VPs in VO
15.2.8 Subject Expletives and Quirky Subjects
15.3 Coming to a Theoretical End
Bibliography
16 The Placement of Finite Verbs
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Verb Second (V2)
16.2.1 V2 in All Main Clauses
16.2.2 V2 in English Main Clauses
16.3 V°-to-T° Movement
16.4 Differences Between V°-to-T° Movement and V2
16.5 Deriving V°-to-T° Movement
16.6 V°-to-T° Movement and the OV-Languages
16.7 Conclusion
References
17 Germanic Infinitives
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Control and ECM
17.2.1 Predicting Control Versus ECM?
17.2.2 ECM in Germanic
17.3 Restructuring
17.3.1 West Germanic Restructuring
17.3.1.1 Splitting and IPP in Dutch
17.3.1.2 Splitting and Long Passive in German
17.3.2 Scandinavian Restructuring
17.3.2.1 Parasitic Morphology in Swedish (and beyond)
17.3.2.2 Long Passive in Norwegian
17.4 Restructuring ECM
References
18 The Unification of Object Shift and Object Scrambling
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Effects on Output
18.3 Pronominal Versus Nonpronominal Noun Phrases
18.4 Verb Movement
18.5 Remnant VP-Topicalization
18.6 Argument Order Preservation
18.7 Categorial Restrictions
18.8 A′ and A′-Scrambling of Objects
18.9 More on the Information-Structural Effect on Output
18.10 Remaining Problems and Consequences
References
19 Unbounded Dependency Constructions in Germanic
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Types of (Long) A’-Dependencies and Their Major Properties
19.2.1 Shared Properties of Long A′-Dependencies
19.2.2 Unbounded Dependencies – The Left Periphery
19.2.2.1 Unbounded Dependencies and Inversion in the Final Clause
19.2.2.2 Unbounded Dependencies and the Shape of the Left Periphery
19.3 Basic Analytical Issues
19.3.1 The Nature of the Landing Site
19.3.2 Differences between Local and Long-Distance A′-Movement
19.4 Alternatives to Long-Distance Movement
19.4.1 Extraction from Verb-Second Clauses
19.4.2 Scope Marking / Partial Movement
19.4.3 Wh-Copying
19.4.4 Resumption
19.4.5 Resumptive Prolepsis
19.5 Locality
19.5.1 Clause-Bound Unbounded Dependencies in German
19.5.2 Intervention Effects – Topic- versus Wh-Islands
19.5.3 Absence of Island Effects in Mainland Scandinavian
19.5.4 That-Trace Effects
References
20 The Voice Domain in Germanic
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Analytic Passives
20.2.1 Morphological Properties
20.2.1.1 The Passive Participle
20.2.1.2 The Auxiliary: Verbal versus Adjectival Passives
20.2.2 Implicit Arguments and the By-Phrase
20.2.3 Syntactic Variation with Analytic Passives
20.2.3.1 Variation in Case Shift
20.2.3.2 Variation in DP-Movement
20.2.3.2.1 DP-Movement in Passives of Double Object Verbs
20.2.3.3 Expletive Passive Constructions
20.2.4 Impersonal Passives
20.2.5 The Icelandic New Passive and Passives of Reflexive Verbs
20.3 Scandinavian S-Passives
20.4 Get-Passives
20.5 Anticausatives
20.6 Middles
20.6.1 Canonical Middles
20.6.2 Let-Middles
References
21 Binding: The Morphology, Syntax, and Semantics of Reflexive and Nonreflexive Pronouns
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Anaphoric Elements in English and German
21.2.1 Basic Complementarity
21.2.2 A Brief Overview of Chomsky’s (1981, 1986) Binding Theory
21.2.3 Noncomplementarity: Reflexive Pronouns Exempt from the Binding Theory?
21.3 Anaphoric Elements Beyond English and German: SELF Versus SE and Possessive Anaphors
21.3.1 Dutch
21.3.2 Norwegian, Danish, and Swedish
21.3.3 Icelandic
21.4 Conclusion
References
22 Verbal Particles, Results, and Directed Motion
22.1 Introduction
22.2 The Syntax of Verbal Particles
22.2.1 Morphology or Syntax?
22.2.2 Word Order
22.2.3 Word Class
22.2.4 Argument Structure
22.2.5 Theoretical Analyses
22.3 Resultatives
22.4 Directed Motion Constructions
22.5 Concluding Remarks
References
23 Structure of Noun (NP) and Determiner Phrases (DP)
23.1 Introduction
23.1.1 A First Overview
23.1.2 NP: Noun Phrase
23.1.3 NumP: Number Phrase
23.1.4 AgrP: Agreement Phrase
23.1.5 CardP: Cardinal Phrase
23.1.6 DP: Determiner Phrase
23.1.7 XP: Pre-determiners
23.2 Germanic-Specific Phenomena
23.2.1 Double Definiteness
23.2.2 Inflectional Alternation
23.2.3 Discontinuous DPs
23.2.4 Spurious Indefinite Articles
23.2.5 Doubly Filled DPs
23.3 Summary
References
Part IV: Semantics and Pragmatics
24 Modality in Germanic
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Defining and Delimiting Modality
24.3 The Deontic (Root) – Epistemic Distinction
24.4 Authority and Controllability
24.5 Mood and Modality
24.6 Morphosyntactic Markers of Modality
24.7 Conclusion
References
25 Tense and Aspect in Germanic Languages
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Tense
25.3 The Reference of Tense Elements
25.4 Aspect
25.5 Complex and Periphrastic Tenses: Temporal and Aspectual Features
25.6 Finite and Nonfinite Tenses
25.7 The Present Perfect Puzzle: Remote and Immediate Past
25.8 Conclusion
References
26 Prepositions and Particles: Place and Path in English, German, and Dutch
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Figures and Grounds, Places and Paths, Functions and Arguments
26.3 How Ps Express Places
26.3.1 More About Places
26.3.2 The Transitivity of Places
26.3.3 The Complexity of Places
26.4 How Ps Express Paths
26.4.1 More About Paths
26.4.2 The Transitivity of Paths
26.4.3 The Complexity of Paths
26.5 Conclusion
References
27 Negative and Positive Polarity Items
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Lexical Properties of Polarity Sensitive Items
27.3 Distribution of NPIs
27.4 Varieties of NPIs
27.5 The Nature of the Licensing Relation
27.6 The Source of Polarity Sensitivity
27.7 Positive Polarity Items
27.8 Conclusion
References
28 Grammatical Reflexes of Information
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Notions of Information Structure
28.2.1 Focus/Background
28.2.2 Given/New
28.2.3 Topic/Comment
28.3 Grammatical Reflexes of IS
28.3.1 Prosodic Correlates of Information Structure
28.3.1.1 Prosodic Structure
28.3.2 The Role of Focus and Givenness
28.3.3 The Role of Topic
28.4 Syntactic Correlates of Information Structure
28.4.1 Scrambling
28.4.2 Leftward-Movements: Topicalization, Passivization, Dative Construction, Object-Shift
28.4.3 Rightward Movements: Extraposition, Right-Dislocation, Heavy NP-Shift, Afterthought
28.4.4 Pronominalization and Ellipsis
28.5 Particles
28.6 Conclusion
References
Part V: Language Contact and Nonstandard Varieties
29 Second Language Acquisition of Germanic Languages
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Learner Varieties
29.2.1 Word Order in German and Dutch
29.2.2 The Basic Variety
29.3 The Development of Word Order in L2 German
29.4 The Acquisition of Finiteness
29.5 L2 Psycholinguistic Research
29.5.1 L2 Processing of Case Marking and Grammatical Role Assignment
29.5.2 Grammatical Gender in L2 German and L2 Dutch
29.5.3 Predictive Processing in L2 Learners
29.6 Conclusion
References
30 Urban Speech Styles of Germanic Languages
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Contemporary Urban Speech Styles of Germanic Languages
30.3 Structure
30.3.1 Variation of the Verb-Second Constraint
30.3.2 Variation of Grammatical Gender
30.3.3 Phonetic Variation
30.3.4 Lexical Features
30.4 Perception Studies and Ascribed Identities
30.5 Media and Popular Culture – Identity Work
30.6 Conclusion
References
31 The West Germanic Dialect Continuum
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Netherlandic and Low German
31.2.1 Varieties of Low Franconian
31.2.2 Low German Dialects
31.3 High German Dialects
31.3.1 Central or Middle German Dialects
31.3.2 Upper German Dialects
31.4 Consonant Continuum: The High German Consonant Shift
31.4.1 High German Consonant Shift in West Middle German
31.4.2 High German Consonant Shift in East Middle German
31.4. 3 High German Consonant Shift in Upper German
31.5 Vowel Continuum
31.5.1 Diphthongization of Medieval High Long Vowels /i:, u:, y:/ (written î, û, iu)
31.5.2 Monophthongization of Medieval Diphthongs /iə, uə, yə/ (written )
31.5.3 Unrounding of Front Rounded Vowels
31.6 Morphological Continuum
31.6.1 Apocope – Loss of Final Schwa
31.6.2 Noun/Pronoun Case
31.6.3 Expression of Past Time
31.6.4 Plural Verb Endings
31.7 Lexical Continuum
31.8 Frisian Varieties
31.9 Conclusion
References
32 The North Germanic Dialect Continuum
32.1 Introduction
32.2 The Origin and Development of the North Germanic Dialect Continuum
32.3 Classification of the North Germanic Dialects
32.4 Linguistic Distances between North Germanic Languages
32.5 Mutual Intelligibility of North Germanic Languages and Dialects
32.6 Conclusions and Desiderata for Future Research
References
33 Heritage Germanic Languages in North America
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Phonology
33.3 Morphology and Morphosyntax
33.4 Syntax
33.4.1 Word Order Variation
33.4.2 Possessive Pronouns in Norwegian
33.5 Semantics and Pragmatics
33.6 Challenges and Controversies
References
34 Minority Germanic Languages
34.1 Introduction
34.1.1 Identifying Minority Germanic Languages
34.1.2 Sociolinguistic Typology of Minority Languages
34.2 Minority Germanic Languages According to Type
34.2.1 Unique, Cohesive Indigenous Languages (Lower Silesian, Övdalian)
34.2.2 Unique, Cohesive Immigrant Languages (Colonia Tovar German, Wymysorys)
34.2.3 Unique, Noncohesive Indigenous Languages (Cimbrian, Mócheno, Scots)
34.2.4 Unique, Noncohesive Immigrant Languages (Amish Alsatian German, Amish Swiss German)
34.2.5 Nonunique, Adjoining, Cohesive Indigenous Languages (Limburgish, Low Saxon / Low German)
34.2.6 Nonunique, Adjoining, Noncohesive Immigrant Languages (Hunsrik, Hutterisch, Pennsylvania Dutch)
34.2.7 Nonunique, Nonadjoining, Cohesive Indigenous Languages (Frisian)
34.2.8 Nonunique, Nonadjoining, Cohesive Immigrant Languages (Afrikaans)
34.2.9 Nonunique, Nonadjoining, Noncohesive Immigrant Languages (Plautdietsch, Yiddish)
34.2.10 Local-only, Adjoining, Cohesive Indigenous Languages (Danish in Germany, German in Denmark and Belgium)
34.2.11 Local-only, Adjoining, Noncohesive Immigrant Languages (Swedish in Finland)
34.2.12 Local-only, Nonadjoining, Cohesive Immigrant Languages (German in Namibia)
34.3 Minority Language Maintenance and Shift
References
35 Germanic Contact Languages
35.1 Contact Languages
35.2 Pidgins
35.2.1 Mediums of Interethnic communication (MICs) in the European Metropole
35.2.2 Trade and Maritime Pidgins on the Mainland Coast of West Africa
35.2.3 English-Lexified Trade and Maritime Pidgins in Asia and Pacific
35.2.3.1 Chinese Pidgin English (China Coast Pidgin)
35.2.3.2 Pacific Pidgin English (PPE)
35.2.3.3 German in Namibia, China, and New Guinea
35.3 Creoles
35.3.1 English-Lexified Atlantic Creoles
35.3.1.1 English Creoles in the Americas
35.3.1.2 Caribbean English Creole (CEC)
35.3.1.3 Suriname
35.3.1.4 North America
35.3.1.5 West Africa
35.3.2 English-Lexified Pacific Creoles
35.3.2.1 Australia
35.3.2.2 Hawai‘i
35.3.3 Dutch-Lexified Creoles in the New World
35.3.3.1 Danish West Indies
35.3.3.2 Guiana
35.3.4 Unserdeutsch
35.4 Extended Pidgins
35.5 Bilingual Mixed Languages
35.6 Noncanonical Contact Languages
35.7 Concluding Remark
References
Index