The atmosphere: an introduction to meteorology

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 5
Copyright Page......Page 6
Contents......Page 10
Preface......Page 18
Acknowledgments......Page 21
The Atmosphere and Media Walkthrough......Page 22
1 Introduction to the Atmosphere......Page 26
Focus on Concepts......Page 27
Meteorology, Weather, and Climate......Page 28
Eye on the Atmosphere......Page 31
The Nature of Scientific Inquiry......Page 32
Theory......Page 33
Scientific Methods......Page 34
Earth’s Spheres......Page 36
The Hydrosphere......Page 37
The Biosphere......Page 38
Earth System Science......Page 39
The Earth System......Page 40
Carbon Dioxide......Page 41
BOX 1–2 The Carbon Cycle: One of Earth’s Subsystems......Page 42
Variable Components......Page 43
BOX 1–3 Origin and Evolution of Earth’s Atmosphere......Page 44
Ozone Depletion—A Global Issue......Page 46
Montreal Protocol......Page 47
Pressure Changes......Page 48
Professional Profile: Kathy Orr, Broadcast Meteorologist......Page 49
Eye on the Atmosphere......Page 50
Eye on the Atmosphere......Page 53
The Auroras......Page 54
Give It Some Thought......Page 55
INTRODUCTION TO THE ATMOSPHERE IN REVIEW......Page 56
PROBLEMS......Page 57
2 Heating Earth’s Surface and Atmosphere......Page 58
Focus on Concepts......Page 59
What Causes the Seasons?......Page 60
Earth’s Orientation......Page 62
Solstices and Equinoxes......Page 63
BOX 2–1 When Are the Seasons?......Page 64
Forms of Energy......Page 67
Conduction......Page 68
Convection......Page 69
Radiation......Page 70
Laws of Radiation......Page 71
BOX 2–2 Radiation Laws......Page 72
Severe and Hazardous Weather: The Ultraviolet Index......Page 73
Reflection and Scattering......Page 74
Absorption of Solar Radiation......Page 76
Heating the Atmosphere......Page 77
The Greenhouse Effect......Page 78
Annual Energy Balance......Page 80
Eye on the Atmosphere......Page 81
BOX 2–3 Solar Power......Page 82
Latitudinal Heat Balance......Page 83
Give It Some Thought......Page 84
HEATING EARTH’S SURFACE AND ATMOSPHERE IN REVIEW......Page 85
PROBLEMS......Page 86
3 Temperature......Page 88
Focus on Concepts......Page 89
Isotherms......Page 90
Why Temperatures Vary: The Controls of Temperature......Page 91
Land and Water......Page 92
BOX 3–1 North America’s Hottest and Coldest Places......Page 93
Ocean Currents......Page 95
Altitude......Page 96
Geographic Position......Page 98
Cloud Cover and Albedo......Page 99
World Distribution of Temperatures......Page 100
Cycles of Air Temperature......Page 104
Daily Temperature Variations......Page 105
Magnitude of Daily Temperature Changes......Page 107
BOX 3–3 How Cities Influence Temperature: The Urban Heat Island......Page 108
Mechanical Thermometers......Page 110
Instrument Shelters......Page 112
Temperature Scales......Page 113
Heat Stress and Windchill: Indices of Human Discomfort......Page 114
Heat Stress—High Temperatures Plus High Humidities......Page 115
Windchill— The Cooling Power of Moving Air......Page 116
Professional Profile: Captain Ryan J. Harris, Military Meteorologist......Page 117
Give It Some Thought......Page 118
PROBLEMS......Page 119
4 Moisture and Atmospheric Stability......Page 120
Focus on Concepts......Page 121
Water: A Unique Substance......Page 122
Ice, Liquid Water, and Water Vapor......Page 124
Latent Heat......Page 125
Humidity: Water Vapor in the Air......Page 127
Vapor Pressure and Saturation......Page 128
Eye on the Atmosphere......Page 129
How Relative Humidity Changes......Page 130
BOX 4–1 Dry Air at 100 Percent Relative Humidity?......Page 131
Natural Changes in Relative Humidity......Page 132
Dew-Point Temperature......Page 133
How Is Humidity Measured?......Page 134
Adiabatic Temperature Changes......Page 135
Adiabatic Cooling and Condensation......Page 136
Orographic Lifting......Page 137
Convergence......Page 138
Localized Convective Lifting......Page 139
The Critical Weathermaker: Atmospheric Stability......Page 140
Types of Stability......Page 141
Stability and Daily Weather......Page 143
Vertical Air Movement and Stability......Page 145
BOX 4–4 Orographic Effects: Windward Precipitation and Leeward Rain Shadows......Page 146
Give It Some Thought......Page 148
MOISTURE AND ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY IN REVIEW......Page 149
PROBLEMS......Page 150
5 Forms of Condensation and Precipitation......Page 152
Focus on Concepts......Page 153
Growth of Cloud Droplets......Page 154
Cloud Classification......Page 155
Middle Clouds......Page 156
Clouds of Vertical Development......Page 157
Cloud Varieties......Page 159
BOX 5–1 Aircraft Contrails and Cloudiness......Page 160
Fogs Formed by Cooling......Page 161
Evaporation Fogs......Page 162
How Precipitation Forms......Page 164
Precipitation from Cold Clouds: The Bergeron Process......Page 165
Eye on the Atmosphere......Page 166
Precipitation from Warm Clouds: The Collision–Coalescence Process......Page 167
Rain......Page 169
Sleet and Freezing Rain or Glaze......Page 170
Hail......Page 171
Severe and Hazardous Weather: Worst Winter Weather......Page 173
Standard Instruments......Page 174
Eye on the Atmosphere......Page 175
Precipitation Measurement by Weather Radar......Page 176
Fog and Cloud Dispersal......Page 177
Hail Suppression......Page 178
Frost Prevention......Page 179
Give It Some Thought......Page 181
PROBLEMS......Page 182
6 Air Pressure and Winds......Page 184
Focus on Concepts......Page 185
Wind and Air Pressure......Page 186
Measuring Air Pressure......Page 187
Pressure Changes with Altitude......Page 188
Eye on the Atmosphere......Page 189
Influence of Water Vapor on Air Pressure......Page 190
Airflow and Pressure......Page 191
Pressure Gradient Force......Page 192
Coriolis Force......Page 193
Friction......Page 195
Geostrophic Flow......Page 196
Curved Flow and the Gradient Wind......Page 197
BOX 6–2 Do Baseballs Really Fly Farther at Denver’s Coors Field?......Page 199
Surface Winds......Page 200
Eye on the Atmosphere......Page 201
Vertical Airflow Associated with Cyclones and Anticyclones......Page 202
Factors That Promote Vertical Airflow......Page 203
Wind Measurement......Page 204
BOX 6–3 Wind Energy: An Alternative with Potential......Page 206
Give It Some Thought......Page 209
VOCABULARY REVIEW......Page 210
PROBLEMS......Page 211
7 Circulation of the Atmosphere......Page 212
Focus on Concepts......Page 213
Small- and Large-Scale Circulation......Page 214
Structure of Wind Patterns......Page 216
Mountain and Valley Breezes......Page 217
Chinook (Foehn) Winds......Page 218
Single-Cell Circulation Model......Page 219
Severe and Hazardous Weather: Santa Ana Winds and Wildfires......Page 220
Three-Cell Circulation Model......Page 221
Professional Profile: Sally Benson: Climate and Energy Scientist......Page 222
Semipermanent Pressure Systems: The Real World......Page 223
The Asian Monsoon......Page 225
Eye on the Atmosphere......Page 226
The North American Monsoon......Page 227
Why Westerlies?......Page 228
Jet Streams......Page 229
The Polar Jet Stream......Page 230
Jet Streams and Earth’s Heat Budget......Page 231
Global Winds and Ocean Currents......Page 232
Ocean Currents and Upwelling......Page 233
El Niño and La Niña and the Southern Oscillation......Page 234
Impact of El Niño......Page 235
Southern Oscillation......Page 236
Global Distribution of Precipitation......Page 237
Zonal Distribution of Precipitation......Page 238
Distribution of Precipitation over the Continents......Page 239
BOX 7–2 Precipitation Regimes on a Hypothetical Continent......Page 240
Give It Some Thought......Page 241
CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE IN REVIEW......Page 242
VOCABULARY REVIEW......Page 243
8 Air Masses......Page 244
Focus on Concepts......Page 245
What Is an Air Mass?......Page 246
Classifying Air Masses......Page 247
Air-Mass Modi.cation......Page 248
Continental Polar (cP) and Continental Arctic Air Masses......Page 249
Lake-Effect Snow: Cold Air Over Warm Water......Page 250
Severe and Hazardous Weather: The Siberian Express......Page 251
Maritime Polar (mP) Air Masses......Page 252
Eye on the Atmosphere......Page 253
Severe and Hazardous Weather An Extraordinary Lake-Effect Snowstorm......Page 254
Eye on the Atmosphere......Page 255
Severe and Hazardous Weather: January 12, 2011— Classic Nor’easter......Page 256
Continental Tropical (cT) Air Masses......Page 259
AIR MASSES IN REVIEW......Page 260
PROBLEMS......Page 261
9 Midlatitude Cyclones......Page 262
Focus on Concepts......Page 263
Frontal Weather......Page 264
Warm Fronts......Page 265
Cold Fronts......Page 267
Drylines......Page 269
Eye on the Atmosphere......Page 271
Formation: The Clash of Two Air Masses......Page 272
Occlusion: The Beginning of the End......Page 273
Eye on the Atmosphere......Page 274
Idealized Weather of a Midlatitude Cyclone......Page 275
Cyclonic and Anticyclonic Circulation......Page 276
Box 9–1 Winds as a Forecasting Tool......Page 277
Divergence and Convergence Aloft......Page 278
Patterns of Movement......Page 279
Flow Aloft and Cyclone Migration......Page 280
Anticyclonic Weather and Atmospheric Blocking......Page 281
Case Study of a Midlatitude Cyclone......Page 282
Severe and Hazardous Weather: The Midwest Floods of 2008 and 1993......Page 286
A Modern View: The Conveyor Belt Model......Page 288
Give it Some Thought......Page 290
VOCABULARY REVIEW......Page 292
PROBLEMS......Page 293
10 Thunderstorms and Tornadoes......Page 294
Focus on Concepts......Page 295
Thunderstorms......Page 296
Stages of Development......Page 298
Severe Thunderstorms......Page 300
Supercell Thunderstorms......Page 301
Squall Lines......Page 302
Severe and Hazardous Weather: Flash Floods— Thunderstorms’ Number-One Killer......Page 303
Lightning and Thunder......Page 305
Severe and Hazardous Weather: Downbursts......Page 306
What Causes Lightning?......Page 307
Lightning Strokes......Page 308
Eye on the Atmosphere......Page 309
Tornadoes......Page 310
Tornado Climatology......Page 312
Severe and Hazardous Weather: Surviving a Violent Tornado......Page 314
Profile of a Tornado......Page 315
Tornado Destruction......Page 316
Tornado Intensity......Page 317
Tornado Forecasting......Page 318
Professional Profile: Warren Faidley: Storm Chaser......Page 319
Doppler Radar......Page 320
Give It Some Thought......Page 322
THUNDERSTORMS AND TORNADOES IN REVIEW......Page 323
PROBLEMS......Page 324
11 Hurricanes......Page 326
Focus on Concepts......Page 327
Profile of a Hurricane......Page 328
BOX 11–1 The Conservation of Angular Momentum......Page 330
Hurricane Formation......Page 331
Hurricane Decay......Page 333
Eye on the Atmosphere......Page 334
Storm Surge......Page 335
Estimating the Intensity of a Hurricane......Page 337
Severe and Hazardous Weather: Cyclone Nargis......Page 338
Eye on the Atmosphere......Page 339
The Role of Satellites......Page 340
Aircraft Reconnaissance......Page 341
Severe and Hazardous Weather: Hurricane Katrina from Space......Page 342
Radar and Data Buoys......Page 344
Hurricane Forecasting......Page 345
Professional Profile: Daniel Brown: Senior Hurricane Specialist, National Hurricane Center......Page 346
Give It Some Thought......Page 347
HURRICANES IN REVIEW......Page 348
PROBLEMS......Page 349
12 Weather Analysis and Forecasting......Page 350
Focus on Concepts......Page 351
The Weather Business: A Brief Overview......Page 352
Weather Analysis......Page 353
Gathering Data......Page 354
Weather Maps: Pictures of the Atmosphere......Page 355
Weather Forecasting Using Computers......Page 356
Numerical Weather Prediction......Page 357
Ensemble Forecasting......Page 358
Persistence Forecasting......Page 359
Climatological Forecasting......Page 360
BOX 12–2 Numerical Weather Prediction......Page 361
Upper-Level Maps......Page 362
The Connection Between Upper-Level Flow and Surface Weather......Page 365
Eye on the Atmosphere......Page 366
Long-Range Forecasts......Page 368
Forecast Accuracy......Page 369
Satellites in Weather Forecasting......Page 370
What Type of Images Do Weather Satellites Provide?......Page 371
Other Satellite Measurements......Page 374
Give It Some Thought......Page 375
VOCABULARY REVIEW......Page 377
PROBLEMS......Page 378
13 Air Pollution......Page 380
Focus on Concepts......Page 381
The Threat of Air Pollution......Page 382
Primary Pollutants......Page 384
Severe and Hazardous Weather: The Great Smog of 1952......Page 385
Eye on the Atmosphere......Page 386
BOX 13–1 Air Pollution Changing the Climate of Cities......Page 387
Secondary Pollutants......Page 388
Establishing Standards......Page 390
Air Quality Index......Page 391
Wind As a Factor......Page 392
The Role of Atmospheric Stability......Page 393
Extent and Potency of Acid Precipitation......Page 395
Effects of Acid Precipitation......Page 397
Eye on the Atmosphere......Page 399
Give It Some Thought......Page 400
VOCABULARY REVIEW......Page 401
14 The Changing Climate......Page 402
Focus on Concepts......Page 403
How Is Climate Change Detected?......Page 404
Oxygen-Isotope Analysis......Page 406
Tree Rings—Archives of Environmental History......Page 407
Other Types of Proxy Data......Page 408
Natural Causes of Climate Change......Page 409
Volcanic Activity and Climate Change......Page 410
Variations in Earth’s Orbit......Page 412
Solar Variability and Climate......Page 414
Carbon Dioxide, Trace Gases, and Climate Change......Page 416
The Atmosphere’s Response......Page 417
Eye on the Atmosphere......Page 419
Types of Feedback Mechanisms......Page 421
How Aerosols Influence Climate......Page 422
Sea-Level Rise......Page 423
The Changing Arctic......Page 426
Eye on the Atmosphere......Page 427
The Potential for “Surprises”......Page 428
Professional Profile: Michael Mann: Climate Change Scientist......Page 429
THE CHANGING CLIMATE IN REVIEW......Page 430
VOCABULARY REVIEW......Page 431
15 World Climates......Page 432
Focus on Concepts......Page 433
Climate Classification......Page 434
Latitude......Page 436
Geographic Position and Prevailing Winds......Page 437
Ocean Currents......Page 438
The Wet Tropics (Af, Am)......Page 439
Temperature Characteristics......Page 441
BOX 15–2 Clearing the Tropical Rain Forest— The Impact on Its Soils......Page 442
Temperature Characteristics......Page 443
Precipitation Characteristics......Page 444
The Monsoon......Page 445
The Dry Climates (B)......Page 446
Subtropical Desert (BWh) and Steppe (BSh)......Page 447
BOX 15–3 The Disappearing Aral Sea—A Large Lake Becomes a Barren Wasteland......Page 449
West Coast Subtropical Deserts......Page 450
Middle-Latitude Desert (BWk) and Steppe (BSk)......Page 452
Humid Subtropical Climate (Cfa)......Page 453
Eye on the Atmosphere......Page 454
The Dry-Summer Subtropical (Mediterranean) Climate (Csa, Csb)......Page 456
Humid Continental Climate (Dfa)......Page 457
The Subarctic Climate (Dfc, Dfd)......Page 459
The Tundra Climate (ET)......Page 460
The Ice-Cap Climate (EF)......Page 462
Highland Climates......Page 463
Severe and Hazardous Weather: Drought—A Costly Atmospheric Hazard......Page 464
Eye on the Atmosphere......Page 466
Give It Some Thought......Page 467
WORLD CLIMATES IN REVIEW......Page 468
VOCABULARY REVIEW......Page 470
PROBLEMS......Page 471
16 Optical Phenomena of the Atmosphere......Page 472
Focus on Concepts......Page 473
Refraction......Page 474
Mirages......Page 477
BOX 16–1 Are Highway Mirages Real?......Page 478
Rainbows......Page 479
Halos, Sun Dogs, and Solar Pillars......Page 482
Coronas......Page 485
Eye on the Atmosphere......Page 486
Give It Some Thought......Page 487
VOCABULARY REVIEW......Page 488
Appendix A: Metric Units......Page 489
Appendix B: Explanation and Decoding of the Daily Weather Map......Page 493
Appendix C: Relative Humidity and Dew-Point Tables......Page 500
Appendix D: Laws Relating to Gases......Page 502
Appendix E: Newton’s Laws, Pressure–Gradient Force, and Coriolis Force......Page 503
Appendix F: Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale......Page 505
Appendix G: Climate Data......Page 506
B......Page 512
C......Page 513
E......Page 514
H......Page 515
L......Page 516
N......Page 517
R......Page 518
S......Page 519
T......Page 520
W......Page 521
B......Page 522
C......Page 523
G......Page 524
L......Page 525
O......Page 526
S......Page 527
T......Page 528
W......Page 529
Z......Page 530