Textbook of Orthodontics

Front Cover......Page 1
Textbook of orthodontics......Page 4
Copyright page......Page 5
Dedication......Page 6
Contributors......Page 8
Preface......Page 10
Acknowledgements......Page 12
Brief Contents......Page 14
Detailed Contents......Page 16
I An Introduction to Orthodontics......Page 24
Definitions and divisions of orthodontics......Page 25
Tissue systems......Page 28
Jackson’s triad......Page 32
Psychosomatic norm......Page 33
References......Page 35
II Growth and Development......Page 36
Differences between growth and development......Page 37
Embryonic period......Page 38
Fetal period......Page 41
Growth of the palate......Page 42
Growth of the tongue......Page 43
Growth of the mandible......Page 44
Growth of the temporomandibular joint......Page 45
References......Page 46
Endochondral bone formation (synonyms: Indirect ossification/cartilaginous bone formation)......Page 47
Intramembranous bone formation (synonyms: Direct ossification/membranous bone formation)......Page 48
Cephalocaudal growth......Page 49
Remodeling......Page 50
The ‘V’ principle......Page 51
References......Page 53
Site VS center......Page 54
Theories of growth......Page 55
Essence of the theory......Page 56
Evidences supporting the theory......Page 57
1. Functional matrix......Page 58
3. Neurotropism......Page 60
Van Limborgh’s composite hypothesis......Page 61
Elements of servosystem theory......Page 62
Explanation of servosystem theory......Page 63
References......Page 64
Fontanelles......Page 66
Increase in width, length and height of cranium......Page 67
Growth of anterior cranial fossa......Page 68
Growth of middle cranial fossa......Page 69
Synchondroses......Page 70
Growth of the facial skeleton......Page 71
Enlargement of the complex itself (figs 5.11 and 5.12)......Page 72
Growth of maxilla with regards to sutural and cartilaginous theory (fig. 5.13)......Page 74
Growth of maxilla and functional matrix theory......Page 75
Mandibular growth after the first year of life......Page 76
Temporomandibular joint......Page 79
References......Page 80
Amount of growth......Page 81
Growth spurts......Page 82
Timing of orthodontic treatment......Page 83
Measurement of growth......Page 85
Craniometry and anthropometry......Page 86
Impressions and study casts......Page 87
Radiographs......Page 88
References......Page 89
Predental/gum pads stage......Page 90
Spacing in primary dentition......Page 92
Between 3 and 6 years of age......Page 93
Molar relationship......Page 96
Eruption of incisors and incisal liabity......Page 97
Leeway space of nance......Page 100
Late mesial shift......Page 103
Eruptive tooth movements......Page 105
Theories of tooth eruption......Page 106
Factors affecting eruption of teeth......Page 107
Space considerations......Page 108
Overbite and molar relation......Page 109
References......Page 111
8 Normal occlusion......Page 112
Fictional period......Page 113
Matthew Cryer and Calvin case......Page 114
Factual period......Page 115
Key II: Crown angulation, the mesiodistal tip......Page 116
Key VI: Occlusal plane......Page 117
Dynamic occlusion......Page 119
Compensating curves......Page 120
Ramjford’s three components of occlusion......Page 121
Forces of occlusion......Page 122
References......Page 123
Components......Page 124
Bone turnover......Page 125
Regulatory factors in bone turnover......Page 126
Law of orthogonality and law of transformation of bone......Page 127
Stress trajectories/benninghoff lines......Page 128
Stress trajectories of mandible......Page 129
References......Page 131
Smooth muscle......Page 132
Isometric and isotonic contractions......Page 133
Jaw reflex types......Page 134
Buccinator mechanism......Page 135
Tongue......Page 136
Equilibrium theory......Page 137
Lateral movement......Page 138
Postural resting position (postural vertical dimension)......Page 139
Most retruded position (terminal hinge position)......Page 140
Habitual resting position......Page 141
Habitual occlusal relation (occlusal vertical dimension)......Page 142
References......Page 143
Anatomy of temporomandibular joint......Page 144
Lubrication of TMJ......Page 146
References......Page 147
Respiration......Page 148
Food contact phase......Page 149
Suckling......Page 150
Mature swallow......Page 151
Stages of deglutition......Page 152
Types of speech......Page 153
References......Page 155
IV Incidence and Recognitionof Malocclusion......Page 156
Ethnic variations in malocclusion......Page 157
Bonwill–hawley arch form......Page 158
Izard arch form......Page 159
Catenary curve arch form......Page 161
Variations in size, form, number and position of teeth......Page 162
Size of teeth......Page 163
Form of teeth......Page 164
Number of teeth......Page 165
Tooth position......Page 166
References......Page 167
Dysplasias......Page 168
Skeletodental dysplasias/skeletodental malocclusions......Page 170
1. Qualitative methods of classification......Page 171
Simon’s classification......Page 172
Angle’s method of classification......Page 173
Bimaxillary protrusion......Page 174
Abnormal muscle function:......Page 176
Division 1 malocclusion......Page 177
Abnormal muscle function ......Page 179
Division 2 malocclussion......Page 180
Muscle functions ......Page 182
Interarch problems:......Page 183
Disadvantages or limitations......Page 185
Class III......Page 186
Method......Page 187
British standards institute classification (1983)......Page 188
Index of malocclusion......Page 189
Treatment priority index......Page 191
PAR index (an index of treatment outcome)......Page 193
Disadvantages of IOTN and PAR index (charles daniels)¹⁹......Page 194
Index of complexity, outcome and need (ICON)......Page 195
References......Page 196
Introduction......Page 197
Moyers’ classification......Page 198
Local factors......Page 199
Molecular basis of heredity......Page 200
Cleft lip and palate......Page 201
Effect of surgery......Page 202
Cleidocranial dysostosis......Page 203
Prenatal influences......Page 205
Predisposing metabolic climate and disease......Page 207
Abnormal pressure habits/ functional causes......Page 208
Tongue thrusting......Page 209
Other functional causes (fig. 15.22)......Page 210
Tongue size......Page 211
Accidents or trauma......Page 212
References......Page 213
Extra tooth/hyperodontia/supernumerary tooth/supplemental tooth......Page 214
Missing teeth (fig. 16.7)......Page 216
Anomalies of tooth size......Page 217
Abnormal labial frenum......Page 219
Premature loss of deciduous teeth......Page 220
Delayed eruption of permanent teeth/dentitio tarda......Page 222
Abnormal eruptive path......Page 224
Ankylosis......Page 225
Dental caries and improper dental restorations......Page 226
References......Page 228
17 Unfavorable sequelae of malocclusion......Page 229
Malocclusion and unfavorable psychological and social behavior......Page 230
Adaptation......Page 231
Speech defects......Page 232
Temporomandibular joint disorders......Page 233
Impacted unerupted teeth......Page 234
References......Page 235
Introduction......Page 236
Personal details......Page 238
Chronic medical conditions......Page 239
Clinical examination......Page 240
Assessment of the symmetry of the face......Page 243
Anteroposterior relationship between the maxilla and the mandible......Page 244
Examination of lips at rest......Page 246
Size of the nose ......Page 247
Lips in function......Page 248
Tongue thrusting......Page 249
Movements of the mandible......Page 250
Extraoral direct method ......Page 251
Path of closure from resting position to occlusion......Page 252
Intra-arch or open mouth examination of the teeth......Page 254
Anterior region:......Page 255
Tongue ......Page 256
References......Page 257
Plaster study casts......Page 258
Impression technique......Page 259
Study cast......Page 260
Pouring the impression......Page 261
Individualizations of casts......Page 262
Steps in base fabrication......Page 263
Information obtainable from study casts/uses of study casts......Page 264
Mixed dentition analyses......Page 266
Method......Page 267
Staley and Kerber’s analysis......Page 268
Disadvantages......Page 269
First premolar basal arch width (PMBAW)......Page 270
Method......Page 271
Method (fig. 19.22)......Page 272
Occlusogram......Page 273
Clinical significance......Page 274
References......Page 275
Intraoral radiographs......Page 276
Principle of panoramic radiography......Page 277
Interpretation of panoramic radiograph......Page 278
Facial photographs......Page 279
Principle of digital photography......Page 283
Analysis of smile......Page 284
Analysis of smile in the frontal dimension¹⁴......Page 285
Analysis of smile in sagittal dimension......Page 286
References......Page 287
21 Supplemental diagnostic Aids: Cephalometric and digital radiography......Page 288
Growth and development......Page 289
Classification of malocclusion......Page 290
Study of post-treatment changes by superimposition......Page 291
Nasomaxillary complex......Page 292
Soft-tissue landmarks (fig. 21.6)......Page 293
Cephalometric planes......Page 294
Cephalometric analyses......Page 295
Maxilla to SN (SNA)......Page 297
Upper incisor to NA (linear)......Page 298
Steiner’s sticks or chevrons......Page 299
Functional occlusal plane......Page 300
1. Frankfort mandibular plane angle (FMA)......Page 301
Drawback of Tweed’s analysis......Page 303
Skeletal analysis (table 21.3)......Page 304
7. Maxillary depth......Page 305
13. Lower lip and E line (fig. 21.20)......Page 306
Superimposition area 1 (evaluation area 1)......Page 307
Superimposition area 5 (evaluation area 7)......Page 308
Effective mandibular length ......Page 309
Mandibular plane angle......Page 310
Nasolabial angle (fig. 21.29)......Page 311
Soft-tissue facial angle......Page 312
4. Nasiolabial angle......Page 313
Lower lip......Page 314
Technique of functional analysis......Page 315
The 45° lateral projections......Page 316
Digital radiography......Page 319
Direct digital imaging......Page 320
References......Page 321
Types of age......Page 323
Principle of bone age assessment......Page 324
Anatomy of hand–wrist region......Page 325
Björk, Grave and Brown method⁵ (fig. 22.5)......Page 326
Sesamoid......Page 328
Cervical vertebrae maturation as skeletal maturity indicator......Page 329
Clinical application of skeletal maturity indicators......Page 330
Computed tomography......Page 331
Cone beam computed tomography......Page 332
Applications of CBCT in orthodontics¹⁵......Page 333
Data acquisition......Page 334
Advantages of digigraph:......Page 335
References......Page 336
Orthodontic interpretations......Page 337
Types of data......Page 338
Meaning of P......Page 339
References......Page 340
VII Principles of Orthodontic ToothMovement......Page 341
Basic principles of tooth movement......Page 342
Physiologic tooth movement......Page 343
Orthodontic tooth movement......Page 344
Role and structure of the periodontal ligament......Page 345
Streaming potential......Page 346
Classic theory of tooth movement......Page 347
Third messengers ......Page 348
Pathway I¹⁰......Page 349
The tooth itself......Page 350
Frontal resorption (direct/periosteal/forward resorption) ......Page 351
Undermining resorption (indirect/rearward or endosteal resorption) ......Page 352
Dentin......Page 353
Use of heavy forces......Page 354
Molecular genetics of osteoblast differentiation and function......Page 355
Types of resorption......Page 356
Biologic factors......Page 357
Age factor in tooth movement......Page 358
Other drugs......Page 359
References......Page 360
Definition of anchorage......Page 361
Stationary anchorage......Page 362
Extraoral anchorage......Page 363
Intermaxillary anchorage......Page 364
Implant as anchorage units/ absolute anchorage/temporary anchorage devices (TADs)......Page 365
Center of resistance (C Res)......Page 366
Moment......Page 367
Stress......Page 368
Spring characteristics......Page 369
Types of tooth movement......Page 370
Features of uncontrolled tipping:......Page 371
Root movement (fig. 25.16)......Page 372
Rotation......Page 373
References......Page 374
VIII Treatment Philosophy, Orthodontic Materials and Care during Orthodontic TreatmentChapter......Page 375
Extraction concept......Page 376
Removable appliances......Page 377
Use of muscular force......Page 378
Development of fixed appliances......Page 379
Edgewise attachment......Page 380
Differential light forces......Page 381
Preadjusted edgewise brackets......Page 382
Tip-edge bracket......Page 384
Lingual brackets......Page 385
References......Page 386
27 Materials used in orthodontics......Page 387
Alginate......Page 388
Requirements of bite registration materials......Page 390
Gypsum products......Page 391
Classification and composition (table 27.5)......Page 392
Martensitic steel: ......Page 393
Plastic brackets (table 27.7)......Page 394
Advantages......Page 395
Ideal properties of an adhesive......Page 396
Composite resins......Page 397
Zinc polycarboxylate cement......Page 398
Desirable properties of orthodontic wires......Page 399
Classification of orthodontic archwires......Page 400
Rolling and drawing of the wire......Page 401
Advantages and disadvantages of stainless steel wires......Page 402
Braided or twisted wires......Page 403
Physical properties......Page 404
Thermoelasticity......Page 405
Thermoelastic NiTi or copper NiTi—martensitic active NiTi......Page 406
Beta-titanium or titanium–molybdenum alloys......Page 407
Elastomers......Page 408
Chemical composition......Page 409
Magnets......Page 410
Soldering fluxes and antifluxes......Page 411
Heat source......Page 412
Parts of a mini-implant......Page 413
Transmucosal collar (neck)......Page 414
Types of mini-implant retention......Page 415
Route of transmission......Page 416
Monitoring sterilization......Page 417
References......Page 419
Caries and decalcification during therapy......Page 420
Care of soft tissue......Page 421
Brushing with braces......Page 422
Instructions to patients......Page 423
Dangers to appliance integrity......Page 425
Displaced or broken archwires and attachments......Page 426
Nickel hypersensitivity......Page 427
Caries repair during orthodontic therapy......Page 428
References......Page 429
IX Early Orthodontic Treatment......Page 430
Rationale for early orthodontic treatment......Page 431
Radiographic indicators (fig. 29.3)......Page 432
Caries prevention and dental caries......Page 434
Early detection of habits......Page 435
Labial frenum......Page 436
Locked permanent first molar......Page 437
Ability to adapt to the changing conditions favorably or unfavorably......Page 438
Amount of bone covering the unerupted tooth......Page 439
Indications for space maintainers......Page 440
Advantages of removable space maintainer:......Page 441
Advantages:......Page 442
Design ......Page 443
Indications:......Page 444
Disadvantages:......Page 445
Transpalatal arch (TPA)......Page 446
Modifications ......Page 447
Indirect technique or roche appliance (fig. 29.19)......Page 448
Materials used......Page 449
References......Page 450
Classification of interceptive orthodontic procedures......Page 451
1. Anterior mandibular displacement......Page 452
b. Anterior mandibular displacement......Page 453
Management of moderate discrepancy (fig. 30.4b) (4 to 7 mm):......Page 454
Primary supernumerary teeth:......Page 455
Ectopic eruption of permanent first molars......Page 456
Space regaining in the transitional dentition/ space regainers/active space maintainers......Page 457
Open coil spring......Page 458
Anterior diastema......Page 459
Therapeutic techniques......Page 460
Management of deleterious oral habits......Page 461
Psychology of digit sucking habits......Page 462
Features of digit sucking......Page 463
Distraction therapy ......Page 464
Appliance therapy......Page 465
Bluegrass appliance ......Page 466
Treatment of simple tongue thrusting ......Page 467
Clinical features:......Page 468
Classification:......Page 469
Facial features associated with mouth breathing:......Page 470
Muscle exercises......Page 471
Etiology of anterior crossbite......Page 472
Need for early diagnosis and treatment of posterior crossbites......Page 474
BCB with constricted maxilla and buccally displaced dentoalveolar processes......Page 475
BCB with constricted maxilla and mandibular excess......Page 476
Retrognathic mandible......Page 477
Objectives of interception of class III malocclusion......Page 478
Retrognathic maxilla......Page 479
Deep bites......Page 480
References......Page 481
Rationale of serial extraction......Page 482
Clinical examination......Page 484
Indications or clues for serial extraction......Page 485
Dewel’s technique of serial extraction (CD4 technique)......Page 486
Purpose of extraction......Page 487
Timing of extraction......Page 488
Purpose of extraction......Page 489
Disadvantages/problems in serial extraction......Page 490
Learning exercises......Page 492
References......Page 493
X Limited Corrective Orthodontics......Page 494
32 Removable appliances......Page 495
Disadvantages......Page 496
Circumferential clasp......Page 497
Triangular clasp......Page 498
Adams’ clasp......Page 499
Advantages of adams’ clasp:......Page 500
Modifications of adams’ clasp......Page 501
Baseplate......Page 502
Springs......Page 503
Self-supported springs......Page 504
Modifications ......Page 505
Spring design (fig. 32.19) ......Page 506
Activation ......Page 507
Palatal canine retractor (fig. 32.24)......Page 508
Short labial bow......Page 509
2. Split labial bow for median diastema closure (fig. 32.28b)......Page 510
Fitted labial bow......Page 511
High labial bow with apron springs (fig. 32.32b)......Page 512
Technical considerations......Page 513
Processing of appliances......Page 514
With the patient/instructions to patient......Page 515
Flat anterior bite plate therapy......Page 516
Construction of bite plates......Page 518
Opening and closing of spaces and retraction of incisors with removable appliances......Page 519
Modifications of the basic hawley appliance......Page 521
Expansion screws......Page 523
Uses of screws......Page 524
References......Page 531
33 Functional appliances......Page 532
Proffit’s classification......Page 534
Force application......Page 535
Lateral pterygoid muscle stimulation......Page 536
Growth stimulation and growth acceleration......Page 537
Advantages......Page 538
Indications and criteria for functional appliance therapy......Page 539
Upper anterior inclined plane (fig. 33.6)......Page 540
Indications......Page 541
Construction of the appliance (fig. 33.9)......Page 542
Advantages......Page 543
Types of lip bumper......Page 544
Andresen activator......Page 545
History of activator......Page 546
Concept 1......Page 547
Early mixed dentition......Page 548
Trimming for vertical movement......Page 549
Bionator......Page 550
Philosophy of bionator appliance......Page 551
2. Vestibular arch......Page 552
Indications:......Page 553
Bow activator of AM schwarz......Page 554
Hamilton expansion activator......Page 555
Rationale of functional regulator......Page 556
Vestibular area of operation......Page 557
Indications of FR I......Page 558
Buccal shields......Page 559
Maxillary labial bow......Page 560
b. Wearing of the appliance......Page 561
Rationale and principles of FR III......Page 562
Wire parts:......Page 563
Functional regulator IV......Page 564
Standard appliance design......Page 565
Construction bite......Page 566
Flexible intermaxillary appliances......Page 567
Herbst appliances......Page 568
Dental features:......Page 569
Disadvantages......Page 570
References......Page 571
34 Extraoral appliances......Page 572
Location of center of resistance of the dentomaxillary complex......Page 573
Components of headgear......Page 574
Cervical headgear......Page 575
High-pull headgear......Page 576
Vertical-pull headgear......Page 577
Headgears for incisor retraction......Page 578
Hickham......Page 579
Turbinger......Page 580
Intraoral device......Page 581
Force parameters......Page 582
Chin cup......Page 583
References......Page 584
Limitations of fixed appliance......Page 585
Orthodontic band......Page 586
Separation......Page 587
Adaptation of bands......Page 588
Cementation......Page 591
Frozen slab technique......Page 592
Direct bonding......Page 593
Crystal growth......Page 596
The archwire......Page 597
Rotation springs......Page 598
Elastomeric modules......Page 599
Elastics (fig. 35.19)......Page 600
References......Page 601
Orthodontic expansion......Page 603
Indications of rapid maxillary expansion appliances¹³......Page 604
Sutures......Page 605
Dentoalveolar changes......Page 606
Types of rapid maxillary appliances......Page 607
Appliance management......Page 608
Slow maxillary expansion appliances......Page 610
Parts of quad helix ......Page 611
NiTi palatal expander²⁸......Page 612
Comparison of effects of slow and rapid expansion......Page 614
Mandibular expansion appliances (fig. 36.14)......Page 615
References......Page 616
Introduction......Page 617
Diagnosis......Page 618
Procedure......Page 619
Radiologic investigation......Page 620
Methods of treatment......Page 621
Corticotomy-assisted orthodontics......Page 623
Transpositioning of teeth/ autotranspositioning/surgical repositioning of teeth......Page 624
Microimplants in orthodontics......Page 625
Procedure of microimplant placement......Page 627
References......Page 628
Skeletal class II malocclusion......Page 629
Medical and dental history......Page 630
Lips......Page 631
Cephalometric and study model evaluation......Page 633
Epker’s envelope of discrepancies (fig. 38.7)......Page 634
Approach to treatment......Page 636
Presurgical orthodontics......Page 637
The surgical treatment objective (STO)......Page 638
Postsurgical stabilization......Page 639
Should teeth be extracted?......Page 640
Surgical procedures......Page 641
Active orthodontics......Page 642
Postdistraction orthodontics......Page 643
Distraction procedure......Page 644
Rate......Page 645
Disadvantages of distraction osteogenesis......Page 646
References......Page 648
39 Cleft lip and palate and orthodontics......Page 649
Development of secondary palate......Page 650
Anatomy and function in cleft situations......Page 651
Hard palate......Page 652
Dental development in cleft (fig. 39.4)......Page 653
Development of occlusion in cleft (fig. 39.4)......Page 654
Syndromic cleft palate (cp) (fig. 39.5)......Page 655
Davis and Ritchie classification......Page 656
Kernohan’s stripped ‘Y’ classification (fig. 39.7)......Page 657
Protocols and timing of treatment......Page 658
The oslo protocol......Page 659
Presurgical orthopedics......Page 660
Procedure......Page 661
Alveolar bone grafting......Page 662
Orthodontic treatment before grafting......Page 663
Timing of orthognathic surgery......Page 664
Modifications of osteotomies in cleft lip palate patients......Page 665
References......Page 666
XII Approach to Managementof Malocclusion......Page 668
Indications for orthodontic treatment (box 40.1)......Page 669
Establishing treatment goals......Page 670
Treatment possibilities......Page 671
Early period......Page 673
Late mixed and early permanent dentition stages......Page 674
Adult treatment......Page 677
References......Page 678
Extraction versus nonextraction controversy......Page 679
Indications for lower incisor extraction......Page 680
Second premolar¹²’¹³’¹⁵......Page 681
Timing of first molar extraction......Page 682
Third molar extraction......Page 683
Manual method......Page 684
Mechanical method......Page 685
Uprighting of tilted posterior teeth......Page 686
Influence of second molar on molar distalization......Page 687
Cetlin plate......Page 688
Pendulum appliance......Page 689
M-pendulum (fig. 41.7b) ......Page 690
Keles slider (fig. 41.10)......Page 691
Jones jig appliance......Page 692
First class appliance⁵⁶......Page 693
Magnets......Page 694
Molar distalization with superelastic NiTi wire......Page 695
Franzulum appliance......Page 696
References......Page 697
Arch length deficiency and expansion......Page 699
Arch length deficiency and extractions......Page 700
1. Alignment......Page 701
2. Correction of crossbite......Page 702
3. Orthodontic mechanics to align the impacted tooth......Page 704
Leveling by intrusion (fig. 42.9)......Page 705
Segmented arch techniques......Page 706
Utility arch......Page 707
6. Closure of spaces......Page 708
Anchorage planning during space closure......Page 709
Frictionless or friction-free mechanics......Page 710
Maximum anchorage situations......Page 711
Moderate anchorage situations......Page 713
Minimum anchorage situations......Page 714
K-sir arch......Page 715
8. Finishing and detailing......Page 716
Coordination of arch widths and arch forms......Page 717
Concept of apical base/stimulation and retardation of growth......Page 719
Use of functional appliances......Page 721
Camouflage treatment for class II malocclusion......Page 723
Correction by maxillary molar distalization......Page 724
Implant distalization......Page 725
Surgical correction of class II malocclusion......Page 726
Treatment of class II division 2 malocclusions......Page 727
Treatment problems......Page 728
‘Pseudo’-class III malocclusions......Page 729
Types of appliances used......Page 730
References......Page 732
Forces from the periodontal and gingival tissues......Page 733
Forces from the orofacial soft tissues......Page 734
Planning the retention phase......Page 735
Types of treatment performed......Page 736
Theorems on retention......Page 737
Hawley retainer......Page 738
Disadvantages......Page 739
Bonded canine to canine retainer......Page 740
Active retainers......Page 741
Raleigh williams keys to eliminate lower incisor retention......Page 742
References......Page 744
44 Synopsis of treatment planning for different malocclusions......Page 745
Hereditary crowding......Page 746
Etiology of localized spacing......Page 747
Investigations......Page 748
Approach to treatment and timing......Page 749
Epidemiology......Page 750
Types of crossbites......Page 751
Diagnosis/differential diagnosis......Page 752
Differential diagnosis......Page 753
Facial asymmetry......Page 754
Method 2:......Page 755
Features of skeletal deep bite......Page 756
d. Archwires with anchor bends or tip back bends......Page 757
Treatment plan......Page 758
Introduction......Page 759
4. Facial growth......Page 760
Correction of skeletal class II malocclusion:......Page 761
Correction of dentoalveolar class II with class I skeletal base (fig. 44.24):......Page 762
Orthodontic correction......Page 763
Soft-tissue features:......Page 764
Functional appliances......Page 765
1. Occlusal features:......Page 766
5. Growth......Page 767
1. Skeletal class III in growing child:......Page 768
Treatment......Page 769
Treatment......Page 770
B......Page 772
C......Page 773
E......Page 774
H......Page 775
M......Page 776
O......Page 777
R......Page 778
S......Page 779
Z......Page 780