Textbook of Microbiology and Immunology

Preface to the Fourth Edition
Preface to the First Edition
Editorial Board
Acknowledgements
Contents
About the Author
Part I: General Microbiology
1: Introduction and History of Microbiology
Medical Microbiology
Scientists and Their Contributions to the Development of Microbiology
Anton van Leeuwenhoek: The Microscopist
Louis Pasteur: Father of Microbiology
Joseph Lister: The Pioneer of Antiseptics
Robert Koch: The Founder of Koch Postulates
The Science of Virology
d´Herelle and Twort: Founders of the Principles of Modern Virology
Immunology as a New Discipline
The Discovery of Chemotherapeutic Agents
Antibiotics
Impact of Molecular Biology in Medical Microbiology
The Human Genome and Microbiome Projects
2: Classification, Nomenclature and Taxonomy of Microbes
Classification of Microorganisms
Domain
Kingdom
Medically Important Kingdoms
Nomenclature and Taxonomy of Microorganism
Bacterial Taxonomy
Intraspecies Classification
Type Cultures
Nomenclature, Taxonomy and Classification of Viruses
Taxonomy and Classification of Fungi
Taxonomy
Classification of Fungal Diseases
3: Microscopy
Size of Microorganisms
Microscopy
Types of Microscopy
Optical or Light Microscope
Fluorescence Microscopy
Confocal Laser Scanning Microscope (CLSM)
Electron Microscopy
4: Sterilisation and Disinfection
Definition of Frequently Used Terms
Sterilisation
Heat Sterilisation
Moist Heat Sterilisation
Sterilisation at a Temperature Below 100 C
Sterilisation at a Temperature of 100 C
Boiling
Free Steam at Atmospheric Pressure (100 C)
Sterilisation at a Temperature Above 100 C
Intermittent Sterilisation
Dry Heat Sterilisation
Flaming
Incineration
Hot-air Oven
Sterilisation Controls
Cold Sterilisation
Filtration
Filters
Radiations
Ionising Radiation
Non-ionising Radiations
High-Frequency Sound (Sonic) Waves
Sterilisation by Chemical Agents
Effect of Cold and Desiccation
Disinfection
Properties of an Ideal Disinfectant
Action of Disinfectants
Factors Influencing Activity of Disinfectants
Types of Disinfectants
Phenols
Halogens
Alcohols
Aldehydes
Gases
Surface Active Agents
Oxidising Agents
Dyes
Heavy Metals
Acids and Alkalis
Testing of Disinfectants
Phenol Coefficient (Rideal-Walker) Test
Chick-Martin Tests
Capacity (Kelsey-Sykes) Test
In-Use (Kelsey-Maurer) Test
Sterilisation and Disinfection in Hospital Settings
Spaulding Classification
Critical Items
Semicritical Items
Non-critical Items
High-Level Disinfectant
Intermediate-Level Disinfectant
Low-Level Disinfectant
Newer Methods of Sterilisation of Heat-Sensitive Articles
Hydrogen Peroxide
Peracetic Acid
Plasma Sterilisation
Ozone Sterilisation
5: Microbial Genetics
Terminologies in Genetics
Basic Principles of Molecular Biology
DNA Structure
RNA Structure
Bacterial Genetics
Extrachromosomal DNA Substances
Plasmids
Types of Plasmids
Bacterial Variations
Phenotypic Variations
Genotypic Variations
Mutations
Causative Agents of Induced Mutation
Bacterial Viruses
Radiations
Chemicals
Effects of Mutations
Gene Transfer
Transfer of DNA Between Bacterial Cells
Transformation
Transduction
Conjugation
Transfer of DNA Within Bacterial Cells
Transposons
Integrative Conjugative Elements
Programmed Rearrangements
Viral Genetics
Mutation
Lethal Mutations
Recombination
Intramolecular Recombination
Re-assortment
Re-activation
Non-genetic Interaction Between Viral Gene Products
Complementation
Phenotypic Mixing
Genotypic Mixing
Interference
Transcription
Translation
Operons and Regulation of Gene Expression in Prokaryotes
Fungal Genetics
Genome Evolution
Small-Scale Evolution of Fungal Genomes
Large-Scale Evolution of Fungal Genomes
Application for Fungal Genetics in Identification
6: Human Normal Microbial Flora and Microbiome
Normal Microbial Flora
Factors Determining Colonisation by Microbes
Establishment of Normal Flora
Importance of Normal Microbial Flora
Beneficial Effects of Normal Flora
Harmful Effects of Normal Flora
Infections Caused by Resident Flora
Microorganisms at Anatomical Sites
Respiratory Tract
Gastrointestinal Tract
Genitourinary Tract
Body Surface
Sterile Sites
Effects of Alteration of Normal Microbial Flora
The Human Microbiome
Probiotics and Prebiotics
7: Microbial Infections
Types of Microorganisms
Commensalism and the Microbiome
Infection
Types of Infections
Transmission of Infection
Sources of Infection
Humans
Animals
Insects
Environment
Modes of Transmission
Contact
Inoculation
Ingestion
Inhalation
Vectors
Susceptible Host
Pathogenesis of Infections
Factors Predisposing to Microbial Pathogenicity
Adhesions
Invasiveness
Toxigenicity
Exotoxins
Endotoxins
Genetic Materials
Communicability
Other Factors
Pathogenesis of Infectious Disease
Immunopathogenesis
Clinical Manifestations
Stages of an Infectious Disease
Incubation Period
Prodrome Period
Specific Illness Period
Recovery Period
Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases
Geographical Distributions
Reservoir of Infection
Emerging and Re-emerging Infections
8: Diagnostic Methods in Microbial Infections
The Diagnostic Principles
Appropriate Specimen Collection and Transport
Microscopy
Cultivation (Culture) of Microorganisms
Identification of Culture-Grown Microbe
Antimicrobial Susceptibility Test
Animal Pathogenicity Tests
Serological Tests
Detection of Antibodies
Detection of Antigens
Assessment of Cell-Mediated Immune System
Recent Approaches in Diagnostic Microbiology
Nucleic Acid Amplification Tests (NAAT)
Sequencing
Automated Methods
Detection of Metabolites
Immunochromatographic Tests
9: Genomics, Proteomics and Molecular Biology in Microbiology
Genomics
Technologies
Applications
Identification of the Pathogen
Identification Directly from Sample and Metagenomic
Detection of Resistance to Antibiotics
Diagnostic Test Development
Detection of Virulence Factors
Epidemiological Typing of Strains
Proteomics
Scopes of Proteomics
Tools for Proteomics
Applications in Microbiology
Elucidation of Host-Pathogen Interaction
Pathogen Identification
Development of Vaccines
Drug Development
Molecular Biology
Molecular Biology Techniques in Microbiology
Nucleic Acid Probes
Applications of DNA probes
Blotting Techniques
Southern Blotting
Northern Blotting
Western Blotting
DNA Amplification Techniques
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
Loop-Mediated Isothermal Assay (LAMP)
Ligase Chain Reaction
Transcription-Mediated Amplification (TMA) and Nucleic Acid Sequence-Based Amplification (NASBA)
Strand Displacement Amplification (SDA)
Non-amplification DNA Techniques
DNA Microarray
Molecular Biology Applications in Microbial Genetics
Molecular Genetics
Genetic Engineering
Restriction Endonucleases
Hybridisation Technique
DNA Sequencing
Genetic Mapping
Recombinant DNA Technology
Cloning Vectors and Hosts
Cloning Vectors
Cloning Hosts
Biological Products of Recombinant DNA Technology
Genetically Modified Organisms
Gene Therapy
Part II: Immunology
10: Immunity
Innate or Native Immunity
Individual Immunity
Racial Immunity
Species Immunity
Factors Influencing Innate Immunity
Age
Nutrition
Hormones
Mechanisms of Innate Immunity
Epithelial Surfaces
Skin
Mucous Membrane
Microbial Antagonisms
Antibacterial Constituents of Blood and Tissues
Cellular Factors
Phagocytosis
Toll-Like Receptors (TLRs)
Fever
Inflammation
Histamine
Kinins
Acute-phase Reactant Proteins
Defensins
Acquired (Adaptive) Immunity
Types of Acquired Immunity
Active Immunity
Types of Active Immunity
Passive Immunity
Natural Passive Immunity
Artificial Passive Immunity
Combined Passive-Active Immunisation
Local Immunity
Herd Immunity
Measurement of Immunity
11: Structure and Function of Immune System
Lymphoid System
Central (Primary) Lymphoid Organs
Thymus
Functions
Bone Marrow
Peripheral (Secondary) Lymphoid Organs
Lymph Nodes
Functions
Spleen
Functions
Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissues (MALTs)
Cells of the Lymphoreticular System
Lymphocytes
Classification
Lymphocyte Structure
Lymphocytic Recirculation
Functions
Immune Responses
Surface Markers
Differences Between T and B Lymphocyte Cells
T Cell
T-Cell Maturation
T-Cell Receptors (TCR)
Types of T Cells
Effector T Cells
T Helper or CD4+ T Cells
T Cytotoxic or CD8+ T Cells
Memory T Cells
Regulatory T Cells
Activation of T Cells
Functions of T Cells
B Cells
B Cell Maturation
Types of B Cells
Activation of B Cells
Null Cells
Natural Killer (NK) Cells
Functions of the NK Cells
Antibody-Dependent Cytotoxic Cells (ADCC)
Lymphokine-Activated Killer (LAK) Cells
Phagocytic Cells
Macrophages
Clinical Significance of Macrophages
Macrophage Participation in Immune Response
Functions of Macrophages
Microphages
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs)
Dendritic Cells
Follicular Dendritic Cells
Abnormalities of Immune Cells
Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)
Functions of MHC
Classes of Proteins
HLA Complex
HLA Molecules
HLA Class I Molecules
HLA Class II Molecules
HLA Class III Molecules
HLA Typing
Mixed Lymphocyte Reaction
Applications of HLA Typing
12: Antigen
Determinants of Antigenicity
Molecular Size
Foreignness
Chemical-Structural Complexity
Stability
Other Factors
Antigenic Specificity
Epitopes
B-Cell Epitopes
T-Cell Epitopes
Types of Specificity
Species Specificity
Isospecificity
Autospecificity
Organ Specificity
Heterophile Specificity
Biological Classes of Antigens
T-Cell-Dependent Antigens (TD)
T-Cell-Independent Antigens (TI)
Superantigens
Haptens
Pathogen Determinants Recognition by Innate Immune System
Toll-Like Receptors (TLRs)
Scavenger Receptors (SR)
Mannose Receptors
13: Antibodies
Structure of Immunoglobulins
Digestion of Immunoglobulins by Enzymes
Immunoglobulin Chains
Heavy Chains
Light Chains
Variable and Constant Regions
Immunoglobulin Domains
Biosynthesis of Immunoglobulins
Metabolism of Immunoglobulins
Immunoglobulin Classes
Immunoglobulin G (IgG)
IgG structure
Biological Activities
Subclasses of IgG
Immunoglobulin M (IgM)
IgM Structure
Biological Activities
Immunoglobulin A (IgA)
IgA Structure
Biological Activities
Immunoglobulin E (IgE)
Structure
Biological Activities
Immunoglobulin D (IgD)
Abnormal Immunoglobulins
Multiple Myeloma
Heavy Chain Disease
Cryoglobulinemia
Antigen Determinants (Paratope) of Immunoglobulin
Isotypes
Allotypes
Idiotypes
Antibody Diversity
Clinical Significance
Class Switching
Clinical Significance
Genetic Regulations of Immunoglobulin Production
Somatic Recombination of V(D)J Recombination
Somatic Hypermutation
Monoclonal Antibodies
Preparation of Monoclonal Antibodies
Humanised (Chimeric) Monoclonal Antibodies
Application of Monoclonal Antibodies
Antibody Engineering
14: Complement System
The Complement
Properties of Complement
Nomenclature of Complement
Components of Complement
C1 Complex
Factor P (Properdin)
Factors B, D
MBL and MASP
Functions of Complement
Complement Activation
Classical Pathway of Complement Activation
Activators of the Classical Pathway
Steps in Activation of the Classical Pathway
Alternative Pathway of Complement Activation
Steps of Activation of Alternative Pathway
Lectin Pathway of Complement Activation
Regulation of Complement Activation
Inhibitors
Inactivators
Regulation of alternative pathway
Biological Effects of Complement
Phagocytosis
Opsonisation
Hypersensitivity Reactions
Cytolysis
Autoimmune Diseases
Endotoxic Shock
Conglutination
Deficiency of Complement
Biosynthesis of Complement
Quantitation of Complement
Functional Assays
Total Complement Activity of the Classical, Lectin and Alternative Pathways
Activity of Individual Components
Immunochemical Assays
Analysis of Complement Activation Products
Assays for Complement-Binding Autoantibodies
15: Antigen-Antibody Reactions
General Features of Antigen-Antibody Reactions
Stages in Antigen-Antibody Reactions
Primary Stage
Secondary Stage
Tertiary Stage
Measurement of Antigen and Antibody
Quantitative Assays
Qualitative Assays
Antigen-Antibody Reactions Used in the Laboratory
Precipitation Reaction
Mechanism of Precipitation
Application of Precipitation Reactions
Types of Precipitation Reactions
Precipitation in Solution
Immunodiffusion (Precipitation in Gel)
Precipitation in Agar with an Electric Field (Electroimmunodiffusion)
Agglutination Reaction
Types of Agglutination Reactions
Direct Agglutination
Passive Agglutination
Complement-Dependent Serological Tests
Complement Fixation Test (CFT)
Types of Complement Fixation Test
Neutralisation Tests
Virus Neutralisation Tests
Toxin Neutralisation Tests
Immunofluorescence
Direct Immunofluorescence Test
Indirect Immunofluorescence Test
Enzyme Immunoassays
Indirect ELISA
Sandwich ELISA
Competitive ELISA
Capture ELISA
Cassette ELISA (Cylinder ELISA)
ELISPOT Assay
Applications of ELISA
Radioimmunoassay
Applications of RIA
Western Blot Techniques
Applications of Western Blot
Immunochromatographic Tests (ICTs)
Chemiluminescence Assay
Immunohistochemical Technique
Flow Cytometry
Turbidimetry and Nephelometry
Immunoelectron Microscopic Assays
16: Immune Response
Types of Immunity
Humoral Immunity (Antibody-Mediated Immunity)
Production of Antibodies
Humoral Immune Response
Primary Response
Secondary Response
Elimination of Antigens
Production of Antibodies Following Antigen Presentation
Antigen Processing
T- and B-Cell Activation
Factors Influencing the Production of Antibodies
Genetic Factors
Age
Nutritional Status
Route of Antigen Administration
Multiple Antigens Administration
Antigen Doses
Antigen Interactions
Adjuvants
Immunosuppressive Agents
Effect of Antibodies
Neutralisation
Opsonisation
Complement Activation
Tests for Detection of Humoral Immunity
Cell-Mediated Immunity (CMI)
Functions of CMI
Induction of CMI
Cytokines
Important Cytokines
Interleukins
Colony-Stimulating Factors (CSFs)
Interferons (IFNs)
Transforming Growth Factor-Beta (TGF-β)
Tissue Necrosis Factor-α (TNF-α)
Chemokines
Tests for Detection of CMI
CMI In-Vivo Tests
CMI In-Vitro Tests
Transfer Factor (TF)
Immunological Tolerance
Types of Immune Tolerance
Factors Influencing Immunological Tolerance
Theories of Immune Response
Instructive Theory
Selective Theories
Sidechain Theory
Natural Selection Theory
Clonal Selection Theory
Immune Network Hypothesis
17: Hypersensitivity
Classification of Hypersensitivity Reactions
Type-I Reactions (Immediate Anaphylactic) Hypersensitivity
Anaphylaxis
Mechanism of Anaphylaxis
Pharmacological Mediators of Anaphylaxis
Primary Mediators
Types of Anaphylaxis
Clinical Manifestations of Anaphylaxis
Management and Prevention of Anaphylaxis
Atopy
Prausnitz-Kustner Reaction
Atopy Sensitivity
Type-II Reactions (Cytotoxic Hypersensitivity)
Antibody-Dependent Cell-Mediated Cytotoxicity (ADCC)
Type-III Reactions (Immune-Complex-Mediated Hypersensitivity)
Arthus Reactions
Serum Sickness
Type-IV Delayed (Cell-Mediated) Hypersensitivity
Contact Dermatitis
Tuberculin (Infection) Type of Delayed Hypersensitivity
Tuberculin Skin Test
Various Other Skin Tests are used to Detect DTH
Type-V Reactions (Stimulatory-Type Hypersensitivity)
Cutaneous Basophil Hypersensitivity
Shwartzman Reaction
18: Autoimmunity
Immunological Tolerance
Mechanisms of Tolerance
Clonal deletion
Clonal anergy
Clonal ignorance
Mechanisms of Autoimmunity
Release of Sequestrated Antigens
Antigenic Alteration
Epitope Spreading
Molecular Mimicry
Cross-Reacting Foreign Antigen
Polyclonal B-Cell Activation
Altered T- or B-Cell Function
Pathogenesis of Autoimmunity
Autoantibodies and Associated Diseases
Immune Complexes Carrying Autoantigens
Self-Reactive T-Lymphocytes
Inappropriate Expression of Class-II MHC Molecules
Classification of Autoimmune Disorders
Organ-Specific Autoimmune Diseases
Diseases Triggered by a Cell-Mediated Autoimmune Reaction
Diseases Mediated by Autoantibodies
Systemic Autoimmune Diseases
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)
Rheumatoid arthritis
Polyarteritis nodosa
Sjögren Syndrome
Laboratory Diagnosis of Autoimmune Diseases
Screening Test (Detection of Antinuclear Antibody, ANA)
Tests for Specific Autoantibodies
Other Tests
Treatment of Autoimmune Diseases
HLA Association with Autoimmune Diseases
19: Immunodeficiency Diseases
Primary Immunodeficiencies
Disorders of Specific Immunity
Humoral Immunodeficiencies
X-Linked Hypogammaglobulinemia
Selective Immunoglobulin Deficiencies
Hyper-IgM Syndrome
Transient Hypogammaglobulinemia of Infancy
Interleukin-12 (IL-12) Receptor Deficiency
Transcobalamin II Deficiency
Cellular Immunodeficiencies
Thymic Aplasia (DiGeorge Syndrome)
Chronic Mucocutaneous Candidiasis
Purine Nucleoside Phosphorylase (PNP) Deficiency
Combined Immunodeficiencies
Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID)
Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome
Ataxia-Telangiectasia
Nezelof Syndrome
Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) Class II Deficiency
Immunodeficiency with Thymoma
Complement Deficiencies
Recurrent Infections
Autoimmune Diseases
Paroxysmal Nocturnal Haemoglobinuria
Hereditary Angioedema
Phagocyte Deficiencies
Chronic Granulomatous Disease (CGD)
Chediak-Higashi Syndrome
Job Syndrome
Leucocyte Adhesion Deficiency
Myeloperoxidase Deficiency
Tuftsin Deficiency
Lazy Leucocyte Syndrome
Hyper-IgE Syndrome
Shwachman Disease
Actin-Binding Protein Deficiency
Secondary Immunodeficiencies
Humoral Deficiencies
Common Variable Hypogammaglobulinemia
Cellular Deficiencies
Measles
Complement Deficiencies
Liver Failure
Malnutrition
Phagocyte Deficiencies
Neutropenia
Laboratory Diagnosis of Immunodeficiency Disorders
Tests for Antibody Deficiency
Tests for Cell-Mediated Immune Deficiency
Tests for Neutrophil Function
Tests for Complement Defects
20: Immunology of Transplantation and Malignancy
Transplant Immunology
Classification of Transplants
Types of Transplants/Grafts
The Allograft Reaction
Mechanisms of Allograft Rejection
Direct Presentation
Indirect Presentation
Stages of Graft Rejection
The Phase of Sensitisation
The Phase of Effector Mechanisms
Clinical Features of Graft Rejection
Hyperacute Rejection
Acute Rejection
Delayed or Chronic Rejection
Histocompatibility Antigens
Histocompatibility Testing
Blood Group Analysis
HLA Compatibility Test
HLA Typing Methods
Microlympho-Cytotoxicity Test
Molecular Methods
Tissue Matching or Tissue Typing
Prevention of Graft Rejection
Graft-Versus-Host (GVH) Reaction
Privileged Sites
Immunology of Malignancy
Medical Evidence of Immune Response in Malignancy
Spontaneous Regression
Chemotherapy
Overcoming Defence Mechanisms
Cellular Response
Immunodeficiency States
Features of Malignant Cells
Tumour Antigens
Tumour-Specific Antigens
Tumour-Associated Transplantation Antigens (TATAs)
Immune Reactions against Tumours
Cellular Immune Responses
Humoral Immune Responses
Immunosurveillance
Mechanisms
Immunotherapy of Cancer
Non-Specific Active Immunotherapy
Antigen-Specific Therapy
Passive Immunotherapy
Adoptive Immunotherapy
Immunomodulation
21: Immunohaematology and Immunoprophylaxis
Immunohematology
ABO Blood Group System
H Antigen
RH Blood Group System
Rh Blood Group Antigens
Rh Typing
Medical Importance of Blood Transfusion
Choice of Donor
Cross-Matching
Risks Related to the Blood Transfusion of Infectious Origin
Haemolytic Disease of Newborn (Erythroblastosis Foetalis)
Detection of Rh Antibodies
Identification of Rh Incompatibility
ABO Haemolytic Diseases
Immunoprophylaxis
Active Immunisation
Live-Attenuated Vaccines
Killed Inactivated Vaccines
Toxoids
Subunit Vaccines
Cellular Fractions
Recombinant Vaccines
Conjugate Vaccine
DNA Vaccines
mRNA Vaccines
Edible Vaccines
Immunisation Schedule
World Health Organisation (WHO) Immunisation Programmes
Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP)
National Immunisation Schedule
Passive Immunisation
Human Sera
Pooled Human Immunoglobulin
Specific Hyperimmune Immunoglobulin
Animal Sera
Combined Active and Passive Immunisation
Individual Immunisation
Hepatitis B Vaccine
MR Vaccine
Typhoid Vaccine
Vaccination During Outbreaks
Newer Vaccines in the Experimental or Clinical Trial Stages
Part III: Bacteriology
22: Introduction to Bacteriology
Classification
Shape of Bacteria
Bacterial Anatomy
Cell Envelope
Cell Wall
Gram-Positive Cell Wall
Gram-Negative Cell Wall
Periplasmic Space
Cell Wall of Acid-Fast Bacilli
Inhibition of Cell Wall Synthesis
Cell Wall Deficient Forms
Pleomorphic Bacteria
Involution Forms
Demonstration of Cell Wall
Cytoplasmic Membrane
Cell Interior
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasmic Inclusions
1. Ribosomes
2. Mesosomes
3. Intracytoplasmic Inclusion Bodies
Nucleoid
Additional Structures
Capsule
Functions
Demonstration of Capsule
Special Capsular Staining Methods
Slime Layer
Surface Appendages
Flagella
Functions
Demonstration of Flagella
Pili (Fimbriae)
Functions of Pili
Demonstration of Pili
Bacterial Spores
Morphology
Properties of Spores
Demonstration of Spores
Physiology (Growth and Multiplication) of Bacteria
Multiplication
Bacterial Growth
Bacterial Growth Curve
Bacterial Counts
Total Count
Viable Count
Bacterial Nutrition
Factors Affecting Growth of Bacteria
Oxygen
Aerobic Bacteria
Anaerobic Bacteria
Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Potential
Carbon Dioxide
Temperature
Psychrophiles
Mesophiles
Thermophiles
pH
Light
Osmotic Pressure
Bacteriocins
23: Antimicrobial Therapy
Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobials
Inhibition of Protein Synthesis
Inhibition of Cell Wall Synthesis
Inhibition of Nucleic Acid Synthesis
Action on the Bacterial Cell Membrane
Resistance to Antimicrobial Drugs
Mechanisms of Antibiotic Resistance
Non-genetic Basis of Resistance
Genetic Basis of Drug Resistance
Chromosome-Mediated Resistance
Plasmid-Mediated Resistance
R Factors
Transposons-Mediated Drug Resistance
Specific Mechanisms of Resistance in Antibiotics
Vancomycin
Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococci (VRE)
Vancomycin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA)
Aminoglycosides
Tetracyclines
Macrolides
Sulphonamides and Trimethoprim
Quinolones
Penicillins and Cephalosporins
1. Production of Penicillin-Destroying Enzymes (β-Lactamases)
2. Mutation in Genes Coding for PBP
3. Reduced Permeability to Drug
Metronidazole
Chloramphenicol
Antitubercular Drugs
Carbapenems
Production of Carbapenemases, Including NDM Metallo-Beta-Lactamase
Antibiotic Sensitivity Testing
Disc Diffusion Tests
Types of Disc Diffusion Tests
Kirby-Bauer Disc Diffusion Method
Stokes Method
Interpretation of Disc Diffusion Tests
Dilution Tests
Broth Dilution Method
Agar Dilution Method
Epsilometer Test (E-test)
Antibiotics Assays in Body Fluids
24: Laboratory Diagnosis of Bacterial Diseases
Conventional Tests in Diagnostic Bacteriology
Microscopy
Staining Methods
Simple Stains
Negative Stains
Impregnation Stains
Differential Stains
1. Gram Stain
2. Acid-Fast Stain
3. Albert Stain
Culture
Culture Media
Ingredients of Culture Media
1. Agar
2. Peptone
3. Other Ingredients
Types of Culture Media
1. Liquid Media, Semi-Solid Media and Solid Media
Liquid Media
Solid Media
Semi-Solid Media
2. Simple, Complex, Synthetic and Special Media
Simple Media
Complex Media
Synthetic Media
Special Media
Anaerobic Media
Incubation of Culture Media
Culture Methods
Methods of Culture for Aerobic Bacteria
1. Streak Culture
2. Lawn Culture
3. Pour-Plate Culture
4. Stroke Culture
5. Stab Culture
6. Liquid Culture
Methods of Culture for Anaerobic Bacteria
1. Specimen Collection
2. Culture Media
Methods of Anaerobiasis
Other Methods of Anaerobiosis
Methods of Isolating Pure Cultures
Laboratory Identification of Bacteria
Conventional Tests in Diagnostic Bacteriology
Morphology of Bacterial Colony on Solid Medium
Growth in Liquid Medium
Staining Reactions
Hanging Drop Preparation
Biochemical Reactions
Catalase Test
Oxidase Test
Indole Test
Sugar Fermentation Tests
Oxidation-Fermentation Test
Kligler Iron Agar/Triple Sugar Iron Agar Test
Urease Test
Citrate Test
Nitrate Reduction Test
Methyl Red Test
Voges-Proskauer Test
Hydrogen Sulphide Production
Laboratory Animals
Antibiotic Sensitivity
Typing of Bacterial Strains
Phenotypic Techniques
Gas-Liquid Chromatography
Genotypic Techniques
Serology
ELISA
Rapid (Bed Side) Tests
Immunochromatographic Tests
Newer Tests in Diagnostic Bacteriology
Nucleic Acid-Based Tests
Automated Methods
MALDI-TOF
25: Staphylococcus
Staphylococcus aureus
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture and Biochemical Properties
Nutrient Agar
Blood Agar
MacConkey Agar
Other Properties
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
Cell-Surface Proteins
Protein A
Coagulase
Cell Wall-Associated Factors
Capsular Polysaccharide
Cell Wall Polysaccharide Peptidoglycan
Teichoic Acid
Extracellular Enzymes
Catalase
Hyaluronidase
Penicillinase
Other Enzymes
Toxins
Toxic Shock Syndrome Toxin
Enterotoxin
Exfoliative Toxin
Leucocidins
Haemolysins
Clinical Syndromes
Inflammatory Staphylococcal Diseases
Toxin-Mediated Staphylococcal Diseases
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture and Identification
Coagulase Test
Antibiotic Sensitivity Testing
Detection of MRSA in a Laboratory
Serology
Molecular Detection
Typing
1. Bacteriophage Typing
2. Molecular Typing
3. Other Typing Methods
Treatment
Antibiotics Resistance in Staphylococci
Penicillin Resistance in Staphylococci
1. Beta-lactamase-mediated resistance
2. Chromosomal-mediated resistance
3. Tolerance to penicillin
Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
Vancomycin resistance Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA)
Epidemic Methicillin-resistant (EMRSA)
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Hospital-Acquired S. aureus Infections
Prevention and Control
Other Coagulase-Positive Staphylococci
Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci (CONS)
Staphylococcus epidermidis
Staphylococcus saprophyticus
Other Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci
Micrococcus
Case Study
26: Streptococcus, Enterococcus and Pneumococcus
Streptococcus
Streptococcus pyogenes (Group A Streptococci)
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
Cell Wall-Associated Factors
1. Group-Specific Carbohydrate Antigen
2. Type-Specific Proteins
3. Pili (Fimbria)
Toxins
1. Haemolysins:
2. Streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxins (SPEs):
Enzymes
1. Streptokinase:
2. Deoxyribonucleases (DNAase or streptodornase):
3. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADase):
4. Hyaluronidase:
5. Serum opacity factor:
6. Other enzymes:
Clinical Syndromes
Suppurative Streptococcal Infections
Toxin-Mediated Infections
Non-Suppurative Streptococcal Infections
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture and Identification
Rapid Direct Antigen Detection Test
Bacitracin Sensitivity Test
Serology
Typing
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Other Haemolytic Streptococci
Group B Streptococci (GBS)
Group C Streptococci
Group F Streptococci
Group G Streptococci
Group D Streptococci
Viridans Streptococci
Other Streptococci
Zoonotic Streptococci
Nutritionally Variant Streptococci (NVS)
Enterococcus
Pneumococcus
Properties of Bacteria
Morphology
Culture and Biochemical Properties
Other Properties
Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Agents
Optochin Sensitivity Test
Antigenic Structure
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
Pathogenesis of Pneumococcal Disease
Clinical Syndromes
Pneumonia
Meningitis
Other Suppurative Infections
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture and Identification
Serology
Molecular Detection
Typing of Pneumococci
Serotyping
Molecular Typing
Treatment
Epidemiology
Prevention and Control
Case Study
27: Neisseria and Moraxella
Genus Neisseria
Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture and Biochemical Properties
Thayer-Martin Medium
Other Properties
Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Agents
Antigenic Structure
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
Pathogenesis of Gonorrhoea
Clinical Syndromes
Gonorrhoea
Gonorrhoea in Men
Gonorrhoea in Women
Ophthalmia Neonatorum
Other Gonococcal Infections
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Detection of Gonococcal Antigen
Culture and Identification
Strain Typing
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Penicillin-resistant Strains of N. gonorrhoeae
WHO Guidelines for Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Non-Gonococcal or Non-Specific Urethritis
Neisseria meningitidis
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture and Biochemical Properties
Other Properties
Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Agents
Antigenic Structure
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
Pathogeneses of Meningitis
Clinical Syndromes
Meningitis
Meningococcaemia
Waterhouse-Frederickson Syndrome
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture and Identification
Antigen Detection
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Antimicrobial Chemoprophylaxis
Vaccines
Commensal Neisseria
Genus Moraxella
Case Study
28: Corynebacterium and Coryneform Bacteria
Genus Corynebacterium
Corynebacterium diphtheriae
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture and Biochemical Properties
Other Properties
Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Agents
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
Diphtheria Toxin
Pathogenesis of Diphtheria
Clinical Syndromes
Respiratory Diphtheria
Cutaneous Diphtheria
Diphtheria of Other Sites
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Direct Immunofluorescence
Culture and Identification
Toxigenicity Testing
In Vitro Tests for Detection of Diphtheria Toxin
Tissue Culture Test
Sero
Molecular Detection
Typing of Corynebactrium diphtheriae
Serotyping
Bacteriophage Typing
Biotyping
Molecular Typing
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geogrphical Distribution
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infections
Prevention and Control
Active Immunisation
Vaccines
Passive Immunisation
Combined Immunisation
Other Pathogenic Corynebacterium Species
Diphtheroids
Coryneform Bacteria
Case Study
29: Bacillus
The Genus Bacillus
Bacillus anthracis
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Spores
Culture and Biochemical Properties
Other Properties
Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Agents:
Antigenic Properties
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
Bacterial Capsule
Anthrax Toxin Complex
Pathogenesis of Cutaneous Anthrax
Clinical Syndromes
Cutaneous Anthrax
Gastrointestinal Anthrax
Inhalational or Pulmonary Anthrax
Anthrax Meningitis
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture and Identification
Animal Inoculation
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Post-Exposure Prophylaxis
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Anthrax and Biological Warfare
CDC Guidelines for Identification After the Threat of Bioterrorism
Prevention and Control
Chemoprophylaxis
Vaccination in Humans
Pre-Exposure Immunisation
Vaccination in Animals
Decontamination of Animal Products
Anthracoid Bacilli
Bacillus cereus
Case Study
30: Genus Mycobacterium and Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Genus Mycobacterium
Classification
Obligate Parasites
Opportunistic Pathogens
Saprophytic Mycobacteria
General Properties
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture and Biochemical Properties
Other Properties
Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Agents
Antigenic Structure
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
Pathogenesis of Tuberculosis
Pathology
Immunity in Tuberculosis
Clinical Syndromes
Tuberculosis
Pulmonary Tuberculosis
Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis
HIV Patients with Tuberculosis
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
The Concentration of Specimens
Microscopy
Culture and Identification
Mycobacteria Drug Susceptibility Testing
Tuberculin Skin Test
Interferon Gamma Release Assay (IGRA)
Serology
Animal Inoculation Tests
Molecular Detection
Rapid and Automated Methods
Treatment
First-Line Antitubercular Drugs
Second-Line Antitubercular Drugs
Directly Observed Therapy (DOT)
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Typing Methods
Prevention and Control
Chemoprophylaxis
Vaccination
General Health Measures
The End TB Strategy of the World Health Organisation
Case Study
31: Mycobacterium leprae, Mycobacterium lepraemurium and Non-tuberculosis Mycobacteria
Mycobacterium leprae
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture and Biochemical Properties
Adaptation in Cell Culture Media
Other Properties
Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Agents
Antigenic Structure
Host Immunity
Classification of Leprosy
Pathogenesis of Leprosy
Virulence Factors
Immunogenetics of Leprosy
Clinical Syndromes
Leprosy
Lepromatous Leprosy
Tuberculoid Leprosy
Borderline or Dimorphous Leprosy
Indeterminate Leprosy
Purely Neuritic Leprosy
Lepra Reactions
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Biopsy
Lepromin Test
Antigen
Test
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Chemotherapy
Immunotherapy
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
WHO Roadmap on Leprosy
Mycobacterium lepraemurium
Case Study
Non-Tuberculous Mycobacteria (NTM)
Runyon Classification
Photochromogens (Runyon Group I)
Scotochromogens (Runyon Group II)
Non-Photochromogens (Runyon Group III)
Rapid Growers (Runyon Group IV)
Treatment
Epidemiology
Case Study
32: Actinomycetes
Actinomyces
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture
Pathogenesis
Clinical Syndromes
Actinomycosis
Cervicofacial Actinomycosis
Thoracic Actinomycosis
Actinomycosis of the Abdomen and Pelvis
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Prevention and Control
Nocardia
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture and Biochemical Properties
Pathogenesis
Clinical Syndromes
Primary Cutaneous Nocardiosis
Bronchopulmonary Infection
Secondary Central Nervous System (CNS) Infection
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture and Identification
Treatment
Epidemiology
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Rhodococcus
Tropheryma whippeli
Dermatophilus
Actinomycotic mycetoma
Actinomycetes and Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis
Case Study
33: Clostridium
Genus Clostridium
Classification
General Properties of Clostridia
Spores
Culture and Biochemical Tests
Clostridium perfringens
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture and Biochemical Properties
Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Agents
Typing
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
Toxins
Major Toxins
Minor Toxins
Other Toxins
Enzymes and Biologically Active Soluble Substances
Pathogenesis of Gas Gangrene
Clinical Syndromes
Gas Gangrene
Food Poisoning
Necrotising Enteritis
Other Manifestations
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture and Identification
Nagler Reaction
Reverse CAMP Test
Laboratory Diagnosis of Food Poisoning
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Clostridium histolyticum
Clostridium septicum
Clostridium novyi
Clostridium tetani
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture and Biochemical Properties
Susceptibility to the Physical and Chemical Agents
Typing
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
Tetanospasmin
Tetanus in Experimental Animals
Tetanolysin
Neurotoxin
Pathogenesis of Tetanus
Clinical Syndromes
Tetanus
Neonatal Tetanus
Localised Tetanus
Cephalic Tetanus
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture and Identification
Toxigenicity Testing
In-vitro Neutralisation Test
In-vitro Neutralisation Test
Other Tests
Treatment
Antibiotics Therapy
Human Immunoglobulin Therapy
Surgical Management
Supportive Management
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Maternal and Neonatal Tetanus
Prevention and Control
Active Immunisation
Vaccine
Immunisation for Prevention of Neonatal Tetanus
Passive Immunisation
Combined Immunisation
Clostridium botulinum
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture and Biochemical Reactions
Other Properties
Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Agents
Typing
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
Pathogenesis of Botulism
Food-Borne Botulism
Infant Botulism
Wound Botulism
Clinical Syndromes
Botulism
Food-borne Botulism
Infant Botulism
Wound Botulism
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture and Identification
Demonstration of Toxin
Molecular Detection of Toxin Genes
Treatment
Antitoxin Therapy
Antibiotics Therapy
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Clostridium difficile
Case Study
34: Non-Sporing Anaerobes
Classification
Anaerobic Cocci
Anaerobic Gram-Positive Cocci
Anaerobic Gram-Negative Cocci
Anaerobic Bacilli
Anaerobic Gram-Positive Bacilli
Propionibacterium
Lactobacillus
Mobiluncus
Bifidobacterium and Eubacterium
Anaerobic Gram-Negative Bacilli
Properties of Anaerobic Gram-Negative Bacilli
Bacteroides
Other Gram-Negative Anaerobes
Porphyromonas
Prevotella
Fusobacterium
Leptotrichia
Laboratory Diagnosis of Anaerobic Gram-Negative Bacilli Infections
Treatment
Case Study
35: Coliforms
Classification
Tribe Escherichieae
Escherichia coli
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture and Biochemical Properties
Other Properties
Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Agents
Antigenic Structure
H or Flagellar Antigen
O or Somatic Antigen
K or Capsular Antigen
F or Fimbrial Antigens
Antigenic Typing
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
Surface Antigens
Exotoxins
Adhesins
Siderophores
Clinical Syndromes
Urinary Tract Infections
Diarrhoea
Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC)
Diarrhoea Caused by Enterotoxigenic E. coli
Enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC)
Enterohaemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC)
Enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC)
Diffusely Adherent E. coli (DAEC)
Septicaemia
Neonatal Meningitis
Other Infections
Laboratory Diagnosis of UTI
Specimens
Urine Culture
Laboratory Diagnosis of Diarrhoea
Specimens
Stool Culture
Identification of EPEC
Identification of ETEC
Identification of EIEC
Identification of EHEC
Identification of Other Strains
Laboratory Diagnosis of Septicaemia, Neonatal Meningitis and Other Infections
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Tribe Edwardsiellae
Tribe Citrobacteriaceae
Tribe Klebsielleae
Klebsiella pneumoniae
Community-Acquired Pneumonia
UTI
Bacteraemia and Sepsis
Laboratory Diagnosis
Klebsiella rhinoscleromatis
Klebsiella ozaenae
Klebsiella oxytoca
Enterobacter
Hafnia
Serratia
Tribe Proteeae
Proteus
Morganella
Providencia
Tribe Erwinieae
Case Study
36: Salmonella and Shigella
Genus Salmonella
Classification and Nomenclature
Kauffmann-White Scheme
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture and Biochemical Properties
Non-selective Media
Selective Media
Enrichment Media
Other Properties
Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Agents
Antigenic Structure
H or Flagellar Antigen
O or Somatic Antigen
Surface Antigens
Antigenic Variations
OH-O Variation
V-W Variation
SR Variation
Phase Variation
O antigen Variation
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
Endotoxin
Fimbriae
Acid Tolerance Response (ATR) Gene
Enzymes
Pathogenesis of Enteric Fever
Clinical Syndromes
Typhoid Fever
Paratyphoid Fever
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Blood Culture
Castañeda Biphasic Method of Blood Culture
Automated Blood Culture System
Clot Culture
Bone Marrow Culture
Faeces Culture
Slide Agglutination Test
Serology
Widal Test
Other Antibody-Based Serological Tests
Antigen-Based Serological Tests
Molecular Detection
Diagnosis of Carriers
Typing
Bacteriophage Typing
Biotyping
Genotyping
Treatment
Multidrug-Resistant Salmonella Typhi
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Vaccines
Killed or Inactivated Vaccines
Oral Vaccines
Salmonella Gastroenteritis
Salmonella Septicaemia
Case Study
Genus Shigella
Classification
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture and Biochemical Properties
Nutrient Agar
MacConkey Agar
Deoxycholate Citrate Agar (DCA), Xylose Lysine Deoxycholate (XLD) Agar, Salmonella-Shigella (SS) Agar and Hektoen Enteric (HE)
Selenite F and Gram-Negative (GN) Broth
Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical agents
Antigenic structure
Other Properties
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
Intestinal Adherence Factor
Endotoxins
Shiga Toxin
Pathogenesis of Bacillary Dysentery
Clinical Syndromes
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture and Identification
Serology
Molecular Detection
Molecular Typing
Treatment
Antibiotics-resistant Shigella
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Case Study
37: Yersinia, Pasteurella and Francisella
Genus Yersinia
Yersinia pestis
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture and Biochemical Properties
Other Properties
Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Agents
Antigenic Structure
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
Plague Toxin
F1 Envelope Antigen (Fraction I or F-I Antigen)
V and W Antigens
TTSS
Other Virulence Factors
Pathogenesis of Plague
Bubonic Plague
Pneumonic Plague
Septicaemic Plague
Clinical Syndromes
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture and Identifications
Animal Inoculation
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Immunoprophylaxis by Plague Vaccine
Chemoprophylaxis by Antibiotic Therapy
Environmental Sanitation
WHO Guidelines for the Management of Plague Outbreak
Yersinia enterocolitica
Yersinia pseudotuberculosis
Genus Pasteurella
Pasteurella multocida
Francisella tularensis
Case Study
38: Pseudomonas, Burkholderia and Acinetobacter
Genus Pseudomonas
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture and Biochemical Properties
Other Properties
Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Agents
Antigenic Structure
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
Pathogenesis of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infection
Clinical Syndromes
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture and Identification
Typing
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Other Pseudomonas Species
Genus Burkholderia
Burkholderia cepacia
Burkholderia mallei
Burkholderia pseudomallei
Case Study
39: Vibrio, Aeromonas and Plesiomonas
Genus Vibrio
Vibrio cholerae
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture and Biochemical Properties
Non-selective Media
Selective Media
Transport Media
Enrichment Media
Other Properties
Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Agents
Antigenic Structure
Classification
Heiberg Classification
Serological Classification
Phage Typing
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
Cholera Toxin or CT (CTx)
Other Virulence Factors
Pathogenesis of Cholera
Clinical Syndromes
Cholera
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture and Identifications
Typing
Serotyping
Bio Typing
Phage Typing
Molecular Typing
Serology
Molecular Detection
Diagnosis of Carriers
Water Sample Testing
Treatment
Replacement of Fluid and Electrolytes
Antibiotic Therapy
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Cholera Pandemics
V. cholerae O139
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of the Infection
Prevention and Control
Cholera Vaccines
Killed Cholera Vaccines
Non-living oral B Subunit Whole-cell Vaccine (WC/rBS Vaccine)
Live Oral Cholera Vaccine (CVD 103-Hg R Vaccine)
General Preventive Measures
Non-Cholera Vibrios
Vibrio mimicus
Halophilic Vibrios
Vibrio parahaemolyticus
Vibrio alginolyticus
Vibrio vulnificus
Other Vibrio Species
Genus Aeromonas
Genus Plesiomonas
Case Study
40: Haemophilus and Bordetella
Genus Haemophilus
Haemophilus influenzae
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture and Biochemical Properties
Blood Agar
Chocolate Agar
Fildes Agar or Levinthal Agar
Other Properties
Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Agents
H. influenzae Antigens
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
Pathogenesis of Haemophilus influenzae Infections
Clinical Syndromes
Infections Caused by Encapsulated Haemophilus influenzae
Infections Caused by Non-encapsulated Haemophilus influenzae
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture and Identifications
Typing
Antigen Detection
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Vaccines
Chemoprophylaxis
Haemophilus ducreyi
Haemophilus aphrophilus
Haemophilus parainfluenzae
Haemophilus aegyptius
Haemophilus haemolyticus
Actinobacillus (Aggregatibacter)
Hacek Group of Bacteria
Case Study
Genus Bordetella
Bordetella pertussis
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture and Biochemical Properties
Other Properties
Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Agents
Bordetella pertussis Antigens
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
FHA
Pertussis Toxin
Invasive Adenylate Cyclase or Haemolysin
Tracheal Cytotoxin
Pathogenesis of Whooping Cough
Clinical Syndromes
Whooping Cough
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture and Identification
Serology
Molecular Detection
Other Laboratory Tests
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Vaccines
Bordetella parapertussis
Bordetella bronchiseptica
Case Study
41: Brucella
Genus Brucella
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture and Biochemical Properties
Classification
Biotypes
Phage Types
Other Properties
Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Agents
Brucella Antigen Structure
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
Pathogenesis of Brucellosis
Clinical Syndromes
Brucellosis
Acute Brucellosis
Chronic Brucellosis
Localised and Suppurative Infection
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture and Identification
Castaneda´s Method of Blood Culture
Bone Marrow Cultures
Serology
The Standard Tube Agglutination Test (SAT)
Indirect Immunofluorescent Assay
Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)
Brucella Skin Test
Molecular Detection
Other Tests
Diagnosis in Animals
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Case Study
42: Campylobacter and Helicobacter
Genus Campylobacter
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture and Biochemical Properties
Other Properties
Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Agents
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
Pathogenesis of Enteric Infections
Clinical Syndromes
Enteric Infections
Extraintestinal Infections
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture and Identification
Histology
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Genus Helicobacter
Helicobacter pylori
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture and Biochemical Properties
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
Pathogenesis of Helicobacter pylori Infection
Clinical Syndromes
Peptic Ulcer Disease
Chronic Atrophic Gastritis
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture and Identification
Urease Test
Faecal Antigen Test
Serology
Rapid Urea-Breath Test
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Other Helicobacter Species
Case Study
43: Treponema, Borrelia and Leptospira
Genus Treponema
Treponema pallidum
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture
Other Properties
Sensitivity to Physical and Chemical Agents
Antigenic Structure
Immunity
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
Pathogenesis of Syphilis
Clinical Syndromes
Venereal Syphilis
Primary Syphilis
Secondary Syphilis
Tertiary Syphilis
Non-venereal Syphilis
Congenital Syphilis
Occupational Syphilis
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture
Serology
Standard Tests of Syphilis
VDRL Test
Rapid Plasma Reagin Test
Treponema pallidum-specific tests
Treponema pallidum Immobilisation Test
Fluorescent Treponemal Antibody (FTA) Test
FTA Absorption (FTA-Abs)
IgM FTA-Abs Test
Treponema pallidum Haemagglutination Assay (TPHA)
Enzyme Immune Assays (EIA)
Western Blot
Molecular Detection
Serological Assay Diagnostic Utility
Response to Treatment
Congenital Syphilis Diagnosis
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Non-Venereal Treponematosis
Endemic Syphilis
Yaws
Pinta
Non-Pathogenic Treponemes
Genus Borrelia
Borrelia recurrentis
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
Pathogenesis of Relapsing Fever
Clinical Syndromes
Relapsing Fever
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimen
Microscopy
Culture
Animal Inoculation
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Borrelia vincenti
Borrelia burgdorferi
Genus Leptospira
Leptospira Interrogans Complex
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture
Other Properties
Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Agents
Antigenic Structure
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
Pathogenesis of Leptospirosis
Clinical Syndromes
Leptospirosis
Anicteric Leptospirosis
Icteric Leptospirosis
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture and Identification
Animal Inoculation
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Case Study
44: Rickettsia, Orientia, Ehrlichia and Coxiella
Classification
Genus Rickettsia
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture
Other Properties
Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Agents
Antigenic Structure
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
Typhus Fever Group
Epidemic or Louse-Borne Typhus
Relapsing Louse-Borne Typhus
Endemic or Flea-Borne Murine Typhus
Spotted Fever Group
Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever
Rickettsial Pox
Other Rickettsial Species in the Spotted Fever Group
Genus Orientia
Genus Ehrlichia
Laboratory Diagnosis of Rickettsia, Orientia and Ehrlichia Infections
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture
Animal Inoculation
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Prevention and Control
Genus Coxiella
Coxiella burnetii
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture
Other Properties
Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Agents
Antigenic Structure
Pathogenesis
Clinical Syndromes
Q Fever
Laboratory Diagnosis
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Case Study
45: Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma
Genus Mycoplasma
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture and Biochemical Properties
Other Properties
Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Agents
Immunity
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
Pathogenesis of Respiratory Infections
Clinical Syndromes
Respiratory Infections
Extrapulmonary Infections
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Direct Antigen Detection
Culture and Identification
Serology
Non-specific Serological Tests
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Habitat
Reservoir, Host and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Genital Mycoplasma Infections
Mycoplasmas and L-Forms in Bacteria
Mycoplasmas as Cell Culture Contaminants
Genus Ureaplasma
Atypical Pneumonia
Case Study
46: Chlamydia and Chlamydophila
Genus Chlamydia
General Properties
Morphology
Growth and Multiplication
Chlamydia trachomatis
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture
Other Properties
Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Agents
Antigenic Structure
Typing
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
Pathogenesis of Chlamydia trachomatis Infections
Clinical Syndromes
Chlamydia trachomatis LGV biovar Infections
Lymphogranuloma Venereum (LGV)
Ocular LGV
Chlamydia trachomatis trachoma biovar Infections
Trachoma
Adult Inclusion Conjunctivitis
Neonatal Conjunctivitis
Infant Pneumonia
Urogenital Infection
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture
Chlamydial Antigen Detection
Serology
Frei´s Skin Test
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Genus Chlamydophila
Chlamydophila pneumoniae
Chlamydophila psittaci
Case Study
47: Miscellaneous Bacteria
Listeria monocytogenes
Morphology and Other Properties
Pathogenesis
Clinical Syndromes
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Treatment
Epidemiology
Prevention and Control
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae
Alcaligenes faecalis
Chromobacterium violaceum
Flavobacterium meningosepticum
Klebsiella granulomatis
Genus Acinetobacter
Streptobacillus and Spirillum
Streptobacillus moniliformis
Spirillum minus
Genus Legionella
Legionella pneumophila
Properties of the Bacteria
Morphology
Culture and Biochemical Properties
Other Properties
Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Agents
Pathogenesis
Virulence Factors
Pathogenesis of Legionnaire´s Disease
Clinical Syndromes
Legionnaire´s Disease
Pontiac Fever
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Direct Fluorescent Antibody (DFA) Test
Culture
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Habitat
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Eikenella corrodens
Cardiobacterium hominis
Genus Bartonella
Bartonella bacilliformis
Bartonella quintana
Bartonella henselae
Genus Capnocytophaga
Gardnerella vaginalis
Moraxella lacunata
Kingella
Case Study
Part IV: Virology
48: Introduction to Viruses
Morphology of Viruses
Size
Structure and Symmetry of Virus
Viral Structure
Capsid
Functions of Capsid
Envelope
Viral Symmetry
Icosahedral Symmetry
Helical Symmetry
Complex Symmetry
Shape
Viral Components (Nucleic Acid, Proteins and Lipids)
Viral Nucleic Acid
Viral Proteins and Lipids
Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Agents
Disinfectants
Temperature
pH
Lipid Solvents
Radiations
Antibiotics
Replication of Viruses
Attachment
Penetration
Uncoating
Biosynthesis
Biosynthesis of DNA Viruses
Biosynthesis of RNA Viruses
Mechanism of Virus Replication
Maturation
Release
Abnormal Replicative Cycles
Incomplete Viruses
Pseudovirions
Abortive Infections
Defective Viruses
Viruses of Medical Importance
DNA Viruses
Adenoviridae
Poxviridae
Herpesviridae
Papovaviridae
Hepadnaviridae
RNA Viruses
Togaviridae
Rhabdoviridae
Reoviridae
Retroviridae
Picornaviridae
Orthomyxoviridae
Paramyxoviridae
Bunyaviridae
Arenaviridae
Caliciviridae
Filoviridae
Prions
Viroids
Pathogenesis of Viral Infections
Stages of Viral Infections
Entry into the Body
Respiratory Tract
Skin
Conjunctiva
Alimentary Tract
Genital Tract
Congenital Infections
Initiation of Infection at Primary Site (Infection of the Target Tissue)
Replication of Virus and Spread to Secondary Sites
Manifestations of the Viral Diseases
Viral Pathogenesis at the Cellular Level
Abortive Infection
Lytic Infection
Inhibition of Cellular Protein Synthesis
Cell Fusion
Transformation
Cytopathic Effect
Persistent Viral Infection
Host Response to Viral Infections
Immunity in Viral Infections
Humoral Immunity
Cell-Mediated Immunity (CMI)
Non-immunological Responses
Phagocytosis
Age
Poor Nutrition
Genetic Makeup
Body Temperature
Interferons
Types of Interferons
Clinical Applications of Interferons
Clinical Manifestations of Viral Diseases
Incubation Period
Severity of the Viral Disease
Epidemiology of Viral Infections
Prevention and Control of Viral Diseases
Immunoprophylaxis of Viral Diseases
49: Antiviral Agents
Mechanism of Action of Antiviral Drugs
Classification of Antiviral Drugs
Nucleoside Analogues
Non-Nucleoside Polymerase Inhibitors
Protease Inhibitors
Other Antiviral Drugs
Interferon
Resistance to Antiviral Agents
50: Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral Diseases
Methods of Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Direct Detection of Viruses/Viral Antigens
Electron Microscopy
Fluorescence Microscopy
Light Microscopy
Demonstration of Virus-induced CPEs in the Cells
Virus Isolation
Laboratory Animals
Embryonated Eggs
Tissue Culture
Flurry Culture
Explant Culture
Cell Culture
Detection of Virus Growth in Cell Cultures
Cytopathic Effect (CPE)
Haemadsorption
Heterologous Interference
Transformation
Detection of Viral Antigen/ Virus in Cell Lines
Light Microscopy
Immunofluorescence
Electron Microscopy
Viral Assays
Total Virus Particles Count
Assay of Infectivity of Viruses
Quantitative Assay of Infectivity
Quantal Assays of Infectivity
Detection of Viral Proteins and Other Enzymes
Detection of Viral Genome
DNA Probe
Southern Blot Analysis
Northern Blot Analysis
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
Viral Serology
Haemagglutination Inhibition (HI) Test
Neutralisation Test (NT)
Western Blot
Molecular Diagnosis
51: Bacteriophages
Morphology
Life Cycle
Lytic Cycle (Virulent Cycle)
Lysogenic Cycle (Temperate Cycle)
Uses of Bacteriophages
Bacteriophage Typing
Phage Therapy
52: Poxviruses
Poxviruses
Classification and Host Range
Smallpox (Variola) Virus
Morphology
Physical and Chemical Properties
Antigenic Properties
Laboratory Isolation
Chick Embryo
Tissue Culture
Laboratory Animals
Pathogenesis of Smallpox
Transmission
Virus Replication
Clinical Syndromes
Smallpox
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Virus Isolation
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Vaccines
Future Risks
Other Poxviruses
Vaccinia Virus
Monkeypox
Buffalopox
Cowpox
Orf
Molluscum Contagiosum
Tanapox
Yabapox
Case Study
53: Herpesviruses
Herpesviruses
Classification and Host Range
Herpes Simplex Virus
Morphology
Physical and Chemical Properties
Laboratory Isolation
Chick Embryo
Tissue Culture
Pathogenesis of Herpes Simplex Virus Infection
HSV Transmission
Replication of Virus
Host Immunity
Clinical Syndromes
HSV-1 Infection
Acute Herpetic Gingivostomatitis
Acute Herpetic Pharyngotonsillitis
Herpes labialis
Other HSV-1 Infections
HSV-2 Infection
Genital Herpes
Neonatal Infection
Aseptic Meningitis
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Tzanck Smear
Direct Antigen Detection
Tissue Culture
Virus Typing
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Herpesvirus Simea: B Virus
Varicella-Zoster Virus
Morphology
Laboratory Isolation
Pathogenesis of VZV Infection
Transmission
Immunity
Clinical Syndromes
Varicella (Chickenpox)
Chicken Pox in Pregnancy
Herpes Zoster (Shingles)
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Direct Antigen Detection
Virus Isolation
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Varicella-Zoster Immunoglobulin
Vaccines
Epstein-Barr Virus
Morphology
Laboratory Isolation
Antigenic Properties
Other Properties
Pathogenesis of Epstein-Barr Virus Infection
Transmission
Clinical Presentations
Infectious Mononucleosis
Epstein-Barr Virus-Induced Tumours
Epstein-Barr Virus Infection in an Immunocompromised Host
Diagnosis
Specimens
Direct Antigen Detection
Virus Isolation
Serology
Heterophilic Antibody-Based Tests
EBV-Specific Antibody Tests
Other Tests
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Prevention and Control
Cytomegalovirus
Morphology
Antigenic Properties
Laboratory Isolation
Pathogenesis of CMV Infection
Clinical Syndromes
Congenital Infection
Asymptomatic Congenital Infection
Cytomegalic Inclusion Disease of Newborns
Acquired CMV Infection
Perinatal Infection
CMV Mononucleosis
Transfusion-Acquired CMV Infection
CMV Infection in Immunocompromised Hosts
Infection of Adults
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Direct Antigen Detection
Cell Culture
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Human Herpesvirus 6
Human Herpesvirus 7
Human Herpesvirus 8
Case Study
54: Adenoviruses
Adenoviruses
Morphology
Antigenic Properties
Other Properties
Laboratory Isolation
Pathogenesis of Adenovirus Infection
Lytic Infection
Latent Infection
Oncogenic Transformation
Clinical Syndromes
Respiratory Infections
Acute Respiratory Disease
Pharyngoconjunctival Fever
Other Respiratory Tract Diseases
Eye Infections
Acute Follicular Conjunctivitis
Epidemic Keratoconjunctivitis
Gastrointestinal Infections
Other Manifestations
Adenovirus Infections in an Immunocompromised Host
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Direct Antigen Detection
Virus Isolation
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Adeno-Associated Viruses (AAVS)
Case Study
55: Picornaviruses
Classification
Enteroviruses
Poliovirus
Morphology
Virus Replication
Antigenic Properties
Other Properties
Laboratory Isolation
Chick Embryos
Tissue Culture
Laboratory Animals
Pathogenesis of Poliomyelitis
Clinical Syndromes
Asymptomatic Illness
Abortive Poliomyelitis
Non-paralytic Poliomyelitis
Paralytic Polio
Post-poliomyelitis Syndrome
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Virus Isolation
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Vaccines
Inactivated Polio Vaccine
Live Attenuated Oral Polio Vaccine
Safety of Polio Vaccine
The Efficiency of Polio Vaccine
Issues Related to Vaccine Failure in Tropical Regions
Spread of Vaccine-Derived Polioviruses
Poliomyelitis Eradication
Pulse Polio Immunisation Program (PPI)
Coxsackie Viruses
Properties of the Virus
Clinical Syndromes
Coxsackie A Virus
Herpangina
Hand-Foot-and-Mouth Disease
Coxsackie B Virus
Pleurodynia
Myocarditis
Juvenile Diabetes
Orchitis
Transplacental and Neonatal Transmission
Coxsackie A and B Viruses
Echoviruses
Other Enteroviruses
Enterovirus 70
Rhinoviruses
Properties of Virus
Laboratory Isolation
Pathogenesis of Rhinovirus Infections
Clinical Syndromes
Laboratory Diagnosis
Epidemiology
Treatment
Prevention and Control
Hepatitis A Virus
Case Study
56: Orthomyxoviruses
Influenza Viruses
Morphology
Virus Replication
Antigenic Properties
Group-Specific Antigen
Surface Antigen
Haemagglutinin (HA)
Neuraminidase (NA)
Classification
Antigenic Variations
Gene Re-assortment
Nomenclature of Influenza Viruses
Other Properties
Laboratory Isolation
Chick Embryos
Tissue Culture
Laboratory Animals
Pathogenesis of Influenza
Clinical Syndromes
Influenza
Complications
Interstitial Pneumonia
Guillain-Barre Syndrome
Reye Syndrome
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Direct Antigen Detection
Chick Embryo Inoculation
Cell Culture
Serology
Haemagglutination Inhibition Test
Enzyme Neutralisation Test and ELISA
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Influenza Epidemics and Pandemics
Antigenic Shift
Antigenic Drift
Avian Influenza (H5N1 Bird Flu)
H1N1 (Swine Flu)
Prevention and Control
Immunoprophylaxis by Influenza Vaccines
Inactivated Influenza Vaccines
Live Attenuated Influenza Vaccines
Recombinant Vaccines
Subunit Vaccines
Chemoprophylaxis
Case Study
57: Paramyxoviruses
Classification
Antigenic Structure
Measles Virus (Rubeola)
Morphology
Virus Replication
Antigenic and Other Properties
Laboratory Isolation
Pathogenesis of Measles
Immunity
Clinical Syndromes
Measles
Atypical Measles
Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis (SSPE)
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Direct Antigen Detection
Cell Culture
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Measles Vaccine
Post-Exposure Prophylaxis
Parainfluenza Virus
Morphology
Laboratory Isolation
Pathogenesis of Human Parainfluenza Virus Infection
Immunity
Clinical Syndromes
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Direct Antigen Detection
Cell Culture
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Prevention and Control
Newcastle Disease Virus
Mumps Virus
Morphology
Antigenic and Other Properties
Laboratory Isolation
Chick Embryo
Tissue Culture
Pathogenesis of Mumps
Immunity
Clinical Syndromes
Mumps
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Chick Embryo
Cell Culture
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Vaccines
Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV)
Morphology
Antigenic and Other Properties
Laboratory Isolation
Pathogenesis of Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection
Clinical Syndromes
Common Cold
Bronchiolitis
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Direct Antigen Detection
Cell Culture
Serology
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Nipah Virus
Hendra Virus
Human Metapneumovirus
Case Study
58: Arboviruses (Arthropod-borne Viruses) and Rodent-borne Viruses
Arthropod-Borne Viruses
Important Properties
Roboviruses
Togaviruses
Alphaviruses
Encephalitis Group
Western Equine Encephalitis Virus
Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus
Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis
Febrile Illness with arthritis Group
Chikungunya Virus
O´nyong-nyong Virus
Semliki forest Virus
Sindbis Virus
Ross River Virus
Flaviviruses
Mosquito-Borne Flaviviruses
Encephalitis Viruses
St. Louis Encephalitis Virus
Ilheus Virus
West Nile Virus
Murray Valley Encephalitis Virus
Japanese Encephalitis Virus
Yellow Fever Virus
Pathogenesis of Yellow Fever
Clinical Syndromes
Epidemiology
The Jungle (sylvatic) Cycle
The Urban Cycle
The Intermediate Cycle
Laboratory Diagnosis
Prevention and Control
Dengue Virus
Morphology
Antigenic Properties
Pathogenesis of Dengue
Immunity
Clinical Syndromes
Classic Dengue Fever
Dengue Haemorrhagic Fever
Dengue Shock Syndrome
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Cell Culture
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Zika Virus
Tick-Borne Flaviviruses
Tick-Borne Encephalitis Viruses
Russian Spring-summer Encephalitis (RSSE)
Powassan Virus
Tick-Borne Haemorrhagic Fever
Kyasanur Forest Disease (KFD)
Omsk Haemorrhagic Fever
Filoviridae
Ebola Virus
Bunyaviridae Viruses
Morphology
Pathogenesis of Bunyaviridae Virus Infections
Immunity
Clinical Syndromes
Laboratory Diagnosis
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Prevention and Control
Rodent-borne Bunyaviridae Viruses
Reoviridae
Rhabdoviridae
Ungrouped Arboviruses
Wanowrie Virus
Bhanja Virus
Case Study
59: Rhabdoviruses
Rabies Virus
Morphology
Antigenic Properties
Other Properties
Virus Susceptibility
Typing of Rabies Viruses
Laboratory Isolation
Chick Embryo
Tissue Culture
Laboratory Animals
Pathogenesis of Rabies
Clinical Syndromes
Rabies
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Viral Antigen Detection
Cell Culture
Serology
Molecular Detection
Ante-mortem Diagnosis of Human Rabies
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Corneal Transplants
Rabies in Dogs
Laboratory Diagnosis of Rabies in Dogs and other Animals
Demonstration of Negri Bodies
Direct Antigen Detection
Isolation of the Virus
Prevention and Control
Pre-exposure Prophylaxis
Post-exposure Prophylaxis
Local Treatment
Passive Immunisation with Rabies Immunoglobulin
Antirabies Vaccine
WHO Guidelines on Post-Exposure Prophylaxis
Red Cross Schedule
Re-Exposure Prophylaxis
Animal Vaccines
Vaccine Failures
National Rabies Control Programme (NRCP)
Rabies-Related Viruses
Duvenhage Virus
Lagos Bat Virus
Mokola Virus
Other Rabies-Related Viruses
Case Study
60: Hepatitis Viruses
Types of Hepatitis Viruses
Hepatitis A Virus (HAV)
Morphology
Virus Antigens
Virus Susceptibility
Other Properties
Laboratory Isolation
Pathogenesis of HAV Infection
Immunity
Clinical Syndromes
Infectious Hepatitis
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Cell Culture
Serology
Molecular Detection
Other Tests
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Vaccines
Specific Passive Prophylaxis
General Prevention Measures
Hepatitis B Virus (HBV)
Morphology
HBsAg
Virus Genome
Mutations
Genotypes
Virus Replication
Virus Antigens
Susceptibility of Virus
Pathogenesis of HBV Infection
Immunity
Clinical Syndromes
Acute Hepatitis
Chronic Hepatitis
Complications of HBV Infection
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Serology
Viral Antigens
Viral Antibodies
Molecular Detection
Other Tests
Treatment
Interferons
Nucleoside Analogues
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Transmission of Infection
High-Risk Groups
Hepatitis B Virus Carriers
Super Carriers
Simple Carriers
Prevention and Control
Vaccines
Hepatitis B Immunoglobulin (HBIg)
Combined Immunisation
Hepatitis C Virus (HCV)
Morphology
Virus Genome
Other Properties
Pathogenesis of HCV Infection
Clinical Syndromes
Laboratory Diagnosis
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Transmission
Prevention and Control
Hepatitis D(Delta) Virus (HDV)
Morphology
Pathogenesis of HDV Infection
Clinical Syndromes
Laboratory Diagnosis
Antigen Detection
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Prevention and Control
Hepatitis E Virus (HEV)
Morphology and Other Properties
Pathogenesis of HEV Infection
Clinical Syndromes
Laboratory Diagnosis
Treatment
Epidemiology
Prevention and Control
Hepatitis G Virus
Case Study
61: Retrovirus
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
Classification of Lentiviruses
Morphology
Virus Genome
Virus Replication
Virus Antigens
Group-specific Antigen
Type-specific Envelope Glycoproteins
Virus Susceptibility
Laboratory Isolation
Tissue Culture
Pathogenesis of HIV Infection
Binding of Virus to Cell Receptors
Virus Replication
Lysis of Infected Cells
Immunity
Cell-mediated Immunity
Humoral Immunity
Clinical Syndromes
Acute HIV Infection
Asymptomatic or Latent Infection
AIDS-Related Complex (ARC)
AIDS
Opportunistic Infections
Malignancies
Paediatric AIDS
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Cell Culture
Serology
Detection of Viral Antigen
Detection of Specific Antibodies to HIV
Rapid Tests
Supplementary or Confirmatory Tests
Applications of Serological Tests
Screening
Seuroepidemiology
Diagnosis
Molecular Detection
Laboratory Monitoring Status of HIV Infection
CD4+ T-cell Count
Measurement of HIV RNA
Measurement of B2 Microglobulin and Neopterin
Other Tests
Strategies for HIV Testing in India
Strategy 1
Strategy 2
Strategy 3
Treatment
Anti-HIV Drugs
Nucleoside Analogue Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NRTIs)
Non-nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NNRTIs)
Protease Inhibitors
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
India
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Transmission
Prevention and Control
Health Education
Screening of Blood and Blood Products
Infection Control
Post-Exposure Prophylaxis (PEP)
Vaccine Development
Case Study
62: Slow Virus and Prion Diseases
Slow Virus Diseases Caused by Prions
Prions
Morphology
Prion Replication
Other Properties
Prion Isolation
Pathogenesis of Prion Diseases
Clinical Syndromes
Diseases Caused by Prions in Humans
Kuru
Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease
Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker Syndrome and Fatal Familial Insomnia
Diseases Caused by Prions in Animals
Scrapie
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE)
Transmissible Mink Encephalopathy
Chronic Wasting Disease of Deer, Mule and Elk
Laboratory Diagnosis
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Slow Virus Diseases Caused by Conventional Viruses
Humans
Sub-acute Sclerosing Panencephalitis (SSPE)
Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy (PML)
Animals
Visna
Maedi
Case Study
63: Oncogenic Viruses
Oncogenic DNA Viruses
Papovaviruses
Poxvirus
Adenovirus
Herpes Virus
Hepatitis B Virus
Oncogenic RNA Viruses
Retroviruses
Classification
Oncovirinae
Lentivirinae
Spumavirinae
Morphology
Virus Genome
Host Specificity
Virus Antigens
Other Properties
Pathogenesis of Retrovirus Infections
Oncogenes
Viral Oncogenes
Cellular Oncogenes
Transfection
Clinical Syndromes
Humans
Animals
Sarcoma and Acute Leukaemia Viruses
Leukaemia Viruses
Other Viruses
Laboratory Diagnosis
Treatment
Epidemiology
Human T-Lymphotropic Viruses (HTLV)
Morphology
Virus Genome
Virus Replication
Pathogenesis of HTLV Infection
Clinical Presentations
Laboratory Diagnosis
Treatment
Epidemiology
Prevention and Control
Endogenous Retroviruses
Case Study
64: Miscellaneous Viruses
Papovaviruses
Human Papillomaviruses (HPVs)
Morphology and Other Properties
Pathogenesis of HPV Infection
Clinical Syndromes
Laboratory Diagnosis
Treatment
Epidemiology
Prevention and Control
Human Polyomaviruses
Parvoviruses
Parvovirus B19
Bocavirus
Rubella Virus
Morphology
Other Properties
Laboratory Isolation
Pathogenesis of Rubella
Immunity
Clinical Syndromes
Rubella
Congenital Rubella
Congenital Rubella Syndrome
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Cell Culture
Serology
Treatment
Epidemiology
Prevention and Control
Rubella Vaccines
Immunoglobulins
Norwalk Virus
Morphology
Other Properties
Pathogenesis of Norwalk Virus Infection
Clinical Syndromes
Laboratory Diagnosis
Treatment
Epidemiology
Prevention and Control
Viral Haemorrhagic Fever
Arenavirus
Morphology
Laboratory Isolation
Pathogenesis of Arenaviruses Infections
Clinical Syndromes
Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis
Lassa Fever
South American Haemorrhagic Fever
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Cell Culture
Serology
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Filoviruses
Reoviridae
Rotavirus
Morphology
Virus Genome
Virus Replication
Virus Antigens
Other Properties
Laboratory Isolation
Tissue Culture
Pathogenesis of Rotavirus Diarrhoea
Immunity
Clinical Syndromes
Diarrhoea
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Antigen Detection
Cell Culture
Treatment
Epidemiology
Prevention and Control
Vaccines
Orbiviruses
Coltiviruses
Orthoreoviruses
Coronaviruses
Morphology
Virus Genome
Virus Replication
Other Properties
Pathogenesis of Coronavirus Infections
Clinical Syndromes
SARS
Common Cold
Gastroenteritis
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Cell Culture
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology
Geographical Distribution
Reservoir, Source and Transmission of Infection
Prevention and Control
Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS-CoV)
COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2
Transmission
Laboratory Diagnosis
Prevention and Control
Variants
Omicron Variant
ZIKA Virus
Case Study
Part V: Mycology
65: Introduction to Mycology
Classification of Fungi
Taxonomical Classification
Mucormycotina
Ascomycota
Basidiomycetes
Fungi Imperfecti
Morphological Classification
Yeast
Moulds
Dimorphic Fungi
Pathogenic Classification
Primarily Pathogenic
Opportunistic Pathogens
Reproduction of Fungi
Pathogenesis of Fungal Infection
Colonisation and Disease
Allergic Fungal Diseases
Mycotoxicosis
Laboratory Diagnosis
Direct Microscopy
Culture
Growth Characteristics
Teased Mount Preparation
Slide Culture
Cellophane Tape Preparation
Serology
Antigen Detection
Non-culture Methods
Detection of Fungal Cell Wall Markers
Detection of Fungal Metabolites
Molecular Diagnosis
Antifungal Drugs
66: Superficial, Cutaneous and Subcutaneous Mycoses
Superficial Mycoses
Pityriasis Versicolor
Tinea Nigra
Black Piedra
White Piedra
Cutaneous Mycoses
Dermatophytes
Clinical Syndromes
Laboratory Diagnosis
Direct Microscopy
Ectothrix
Endothrix
Culture
Trichophyton
Microsporum
Epidermophyton
Other Tests
Hair Perforation Test
Urease Test
Growth on Rice Grains
Treatment
Subcutaneous Mycosis
Mycetoma
Chromoblastomycosis
Phaeohyphomycosis
Sporotrichosis
Rhinosporidiosis
Entomophthoromycosis
Case Study
67: Systemic Mycoses and Opportunistic Infections
Systemic Mycosis
Coccidioidomycosis
The Fungus
Pathogenesis of Coccidiomycosis
Clinical Syndromes
Laboratory Diagnosis
Microscopy
Culture
Serology
Skin Test
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology and Prevention
Paracoccidioidomycosis
The Fungus
Pathogenesis of Paracoccidiomycosis
Clinical Syndromes
Laboratory Diagnosis
Treatment
Epidemiology and Prevention
Prevention and Control
Histoplasmosis
The Fungus
Pathogenesis of Histoplasmosis
Clinical Syndromes
Laboratory Diagnosis
Treatment
Epidemiology and Prevention
Prevention and Control
Blastomycosis
The Fungus
Pathogenesis of Blastomycosis
Clinical Syndromes
Pulmonary Infection
Extrapulmonary Infection
Laboratory Diagnosis
Sputum or Broncho-Alveolar Lavage (BAL) Microscopy
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology and Prevention
Case Study
Opportunistic Fungal Infections
Candidiasis
The Fungus
Pathogenesis of Candida Infection
Clinical Syndromes
Cutaneous Candidiasis
Mucocutaneous Candidiasis
Chronic Mucocutaneous Candidiasis
Systemic Candidiasis
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture
Non-culture Candida Detection
Serology
Skin Test
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology and Prevention
Cryptococcosis
The Fungus
Pathogenesis of Cryptococcosis
Clinical Syndromes
Pulmonary Cryptococcosis
CNS Cryptococcosis
Disseminated Non-pulmonary and Non-CNS Cryptococcosis
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture
Serology
Treatment
Epidemiology and Prevention
Aspergillosis
The Fungus
Pathogenesis of Aspergillosis
Clinical Syndromes
Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis
Chronic Necrotising Pulmonary Aspergillosis
Aspergilloma
Invasive Aspergillosis
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Direct KOH Preparation
Culture
Serology
Treatment
Epidemiology and Prevention
Mucormycosis (Zygomycosis)
The Fungus
Pathogenesis of Mucormycosis
Clinical Syndromes
Laboratory Diagnosis
Microscopy
Culture
Histopathology
Serology
Treatment
Epidemiology and Prevention
Prevention and Control
Pneumocystosis
The Fungus
Pathogenesis of Pneumocystosis
Clinical Syndromes
Laboratory Diagnosis
Treatment
Epidemiology and Prevention
Talaromycosis
The Fungus
Pathogenesis of Talaromycosis
Clinical Syndromes
Laboratory Diagnosis
Microscopy
Culture
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Epidemiology and Prevention
Prevention and Control
Pseudallescheria boydii and Scedosporium apiospermum Infection
Fusariosis
Other Fungal Infections
Otomycosis
Oculomycosis (Keratomycosis, Fungal Keratitis, Mycotic Keratitis)
Mycotic Poisoning
Mycetism
Mycotoxicosis
Case Study
Part VI: Applied and Clinical Microbiology
Chapter 68: Bacteriology of Water, Milk, Air and Food
Bacteriology of Water
Bacterial Flora in Water
Factors Determining the Number of Bacteria in Water
Water-Borne Microorganisms
Bacteriological Examination of Water
Indicator Organisms
Coliforms
Thermotolerant Coliform Bacteria
Faecal Streptococci
Sulphite-reducing Clostridia
Collection of Water Samples for Analysis
Sampling from a Tap or Pump Outlet
Sampling from a Reservoir, such as a Stream, River, Lakes and Tanks
Sampling from a Well
Sample Storage
Methods of Water Analysis
Presumptive Coliform Count
Differential Coliform Count
Detection of Faecal Streptococci
Detection of C. Perfringens
Membrane Filtration Method
Detection of Specific Pathogens
Viruses in Water
Protozoa in Water
Bacteriology of Milk
Bacterial Flora of Milk
Lactic Acid Bacteria
Coliforms
Importance of Presence of Microorganisms in Milk
Microorganisms Causing Spoilage of Milk
Pathogenic Microorganisms in Milk
Pasteurisation
Ultra-High-Temperature Treatment
Boiling
Bacteriological Examination of Milk
Colony Counts
Coliform Counts
Methylene Blue Test
Phosphatase Test
Turbidity Test
Detection of Specific Pathogens
Bacteriology of Air
Bacteriological Examination of Air
Microbial Quality of Outdoor Air
Microbial Content of Indoor Air
Dust Particles
Humans
Droplets and Droplet Nuclei
Measuring Bacterial Content of the Air
Settle Plate Method (Passive Sampling)
Slit Sampler Method (Active Sampling)
Bacteriology of Food
Source of Food Contamination
Faeces
Insects
Air
Domestic animals
Laboratory Diagnosis
Clinical history
Specimens
Detection of Specific Pathogen
Prevention of Food-Borne Infections
69: Biomedical Waste Management
Biomedical Waste
Potential Hazards of Biomedical Waste
Types of Biomedical Waste
Human Anatomical Waste
Animal Waste
Microbiology Laboratory Waste
Human Blood and Body Fluid Waste
Waste Sharps
Cytotoxic Waste
Waste Treatment and Disposal
General Principles of Waste Management
Steps Involved in Waste Management
Reduction
Segregation
Storage
Transportation
Treatment
Methods of Waste Treatment
Autoclaving
Chemical Decontamination
Incineration
Microwave Treatment
Plasma Torch
Disposal of Biomedical Wastes
Spill Management
Management of Blood and Body Fluids, Including Infectious Materials Spill
70: Healthcare-Associated Infections
Healthcare-Associated Infections
Definition of Healthcare-Associated Infection
Iatrogenic Infections
Laboratory-Acquired Infections
Biosafety Level
Biosafety Level I
Biosafety Level II
Biosafety Level III
Biosafety Level IV
Factors Affecting Healthcare-Associated Infection
Hospitalised Patients
Hospital Environment
Invasive Devices
Antibiotics Resistance
Diagnostic or Therapeutic Procedures
Transfusion
Epidemiology of Healthcare-Associated Infection
Sources of Infections
Exogenous Infection
Endogenous Infection
Microorganisms Causing Infections
Transmission of Microorganisms
Airborne Transmission
Transmission by Direct Contact
Transmission by Oral Route
Transmission by Parenteral Route
Common Types of Healthcare-Associated Infections
Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infections (CAUTI)
Health-Care Associated Bacteremia (Bloodstream Infection)
Central Line-Associated Bloodstream Infections (CLABSIs)
Catheter-Related Bloodstream Infections (CRBSI)
Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia (VAP)
Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia (HAP)
Surgical Site Infections (SSI)
Healthcare-Associated Infections Due to Hepatitis Viruses B and C
Healthcare-Associated Episodes of Tetanus
Healthcare-Associated Episodes of Acute Gastroenteritis
Antibiotics Associated Diarrhoea
Needlestick and Sharps Injury
Prevention of Needlestick and Sharps Injury
Needlestick Injury Management
Immediate Management
Postexposure Treatment (PEP)
Laboratory Follow-up of Cases
Diagnosis of Healthcare-Associated Infections
Prevention and Control of Health Care-Associated Infections
Standard Precautions
Infection Control Committee
Active Surveillance for Healthcare-Associated Infections
Hand Hygiene
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Injection Safety
Environmental Cleaning
Medical Equipment
Respiratory Hygiene/Cough Etiquette
Isolation Precautions
Precautions in Operating Theatre
Investigation and Follow-up Outbreaks of Disease
71: Infective Syndromes: A System and Organ-Based Approach
Pyrexia of Unknown Origin (PUO)
Definition
Aetiologies of PUO
Infections
Neoplasms
Collagen Vascular Diseases
Miscellaneous Conditions
Laboratory Diagnosis
Stage I
Stage II
Stage III
Treatment
Respiratory Tract Infections
Definitions
Upper Respiratory Tract Infection (URI)
Lower Respiratory Tract Infection (LRI)
Upper Respiratory Tract Infection (URI)
Aetiology
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Gram Staining
Direct Fluorescent Antibody (DFA) Test
Treatment
Lower Respiratory Tract Infection (LRI)
Types of LRI
Aetiology
Bronchitis
Acute Bronchitis
Acute Exacerbation of Chronic Bronchitis (AECB)
Pneumonia
Lobar Pneumonia
Bronchopneumonia
Interstitial Pneumonia
Miliary Pneumonia
Nosocomial Pneumonia
Chronic Infections
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture
Serology
Biomarkers
Molecular Detection
Radiology
Treatment
Urinary Tract Infections (UTI)
Definitions
Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)
Bacteriuria
Resident Microbial Flora
Aetiology
Pathogenesis of UTI
Predisposing Factors
Host Factors
Gender and Sexual Activity
Pregnancy
Obstruction
Neurogenic Bladder Dysfunction
Vesicoureteral Reflux
Genetic Factors
Microbial Factors
Clinical Syndromes
Urethritis
Asymptomatic Bacteriuria
Cystitis
Acute Urethral Syndrome
Acute Pyelonephritis
Catheter-Associated UTIs
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimen
Urine Microscopy
Screening Tests
Culture
Semiquantitative Methods
Quantitative Method
Treatment
Meningitis
Definition
Meningitis
Acute Encephalitis Syndrome (AES)
Types of Meningitis
Acute Meningitis
Sub-acute Meningitis
Chronic Meningitis
Pathogenesis of Meningitis
Clinical Syndromes
Acute Encephalitis Syndrome (AES)
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimen
Macroscopy
Microscopy
Culture
Direct Detection of Antigen
Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate
Molecular Diagnosis
Treatment
Bloodstream Infections
Definitions
Bacteraemia
Septicaemia
Septic Shock
Multiple-organ Dysfunction Syndrome
Endotoxaemia
Types of Blood-Stream Infections
Clinical Syndromes
Laboratory Diagnosis
Blood Culture
Manual Blood Culture
Automated Blood Culture
Non-blood Culture Tests
Other Tests
Laboratory Diagnosis of Catheter-Related Blood Stream Infection (CRBSI)
Differential Quantitative Cultures
Treatment
Diarrhoeal Diseases and Food Poisoning
Definitions
Diarrhoea
Dysentery
Gastroenteritis
Enterocolitis
Types
Clinical Syndromes
Acute Infective Diarrhoea
Chronic Infective Diarrhoea
Traveller´s Diarrhoea
Gastroenteritis
Food Poisoning
Infective Food Poisoning
Toxic Food Poisoning
Intermediate or Infective-toxic Food Poisoning
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture
Cell Culture
Serology
Molecular Detection
Treatment
Sexually Transmitted Infections and Reproductive Tract Infections
Definitions
Sexually Transmitted Infection (STI)
Sexually Transmissible Disease (STD)
Reproductive Tract Infections (RTI)
Types
Infections with Ulcerative Genital Ulcers
Infection with Non-Ulcerative Lesions
Men
Women
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture
Serology
Molecular Detection
Other Tests
Frei´s Test
Whiff Test
Treatment
Skin and Soft Tissue Infections
Types
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimens
Microscopy
Culture
Molecular Detection
Other Tests
Treatment
Hepatobiliary Infections
Definitions
Clinical Syndromes
Hepatitis
Cholangitis
Cholecystitis
Laboratory Diagnosis
Wound Infections
Congenital Infections
Congenital Rubella Syndrome
Congenital Toxoplasmosis
Congenital Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Infection
Other Congenital Infections
Bone and Joint Infections
Eye Infections
Ear Infections
72: Quality Management System in Diagnostic Microbiology
Quality Management System
Definitions
Quality
Quality Assurance
Quality Control
Components of Quality Management System
Quality Assurance
Quality Control
Assessment of Quality Systems
Internal Quality Assessment/Control or Internal Audit
External Quality Assessment/Control or External Audit
Proficiency Testing
Rechecking or Retesting
Site Visit
Glossary
Further Reading
Practical Guidance
National and International Guidelines
Books
Scientific Publications
Index