Technology of Bottled Water

Technology of Bottled Water......Page 1
Contents......Page 7
Contributors......Page 15
Preface......Page 17
1.1 Rationale for this book......Page 19
1.2 The second edition......Page 20
2.2 The historical background......Page 24
2.3 Market segmentation......Page 27
2.4 Global giants and local leaders......Page 31
2.5 Global review......Page 33
2.6 USA......Page 36
2.7 Europe into the new millennium......Page 38
2.8 China......Page 41
2.9 Trends for the future......Page 44
3.1 Introduction......Page 46
3.2 Europe......Page 47
3.2.1 Natural Mineral Waters......Page 49
3.2.1.1 Recognition of Natural Mineral Waters......Page 51
3.2.1.2 Exploitation of Natural Mineral Waters
......Page 56
3.2.1.3 Labelling of Natural Mineral Waters......Page 58
3.2.2 Spring Water......Page 60
3.2.4 Implementation of the Directives in Europe......Page 62
3.3.1 Unites States......Page 71
3.3.1.2 State Regulation......Page 72
3.3.1.3 Industry Regulation......Page 73
3.3.1.4 Quality standards......Page 75
3.3.2 Canada......Page 79
3.4 Codex Alimentarius......Page 87
3.4.1 Codex and Natural Mineral Waters......Page 88
3.4.2 Codex and Non-Natural Mineral Waters......Page 90
3.5 Latin America......Page 91
3.6 Australia and New Zealand......Page 94
3.7 Asia......Page 95
3.8 South Africa......Page 96
3.9 Conclusions......Page 107
4.1 Introduction......Page 111
4.2.2 Recharge to underground water......Page 112
4.2.3 Groundwater occurrence......Page 113
4.2.5 Storage of water in aquifers......Page 116
4.2.6 Wells, springs and boreholes......Page 119
4.2.7 Flow to wells and boreholes......Page 121
4.3.2 Terms, definitions and concepts......Page 123
4.3.3 Hardness and alkalinity......Page 126
4.3.4 Evolution of groundwaters......Page 127
4.3.5 Human influences on groundwater......Page 130
4.3.6 Hydrochemical classification of bottled waters......Page 131
4.4.1 Stages of development......Page 133
4.4.2 Resource evaluation......Page 134
4.4.4.1 Springs......Page 136
4.4.4.2 Boreholes......Page 137
4.5.1 Record keeping......Page 140
4.5.2 Sampling and water quality analysis......Page 141
4.5.4 Risk assessment and definition of protection zones......Page 142
4.5.5 Monitoring, maintenance and rehabilitation......Page 144
4.5.6 Monitoring borehole yield......Page 145
4.5.7 Changes in water quality......Page 147
5.1.3 Marketing reasons......Page 150
5.2.3.1 Iron and manganese......Page 151
5.2.4 Addition of valuable ‘elements’......Page 152
5.3.1.1 Mass media filters......Page 153
5.3.1.2 Other filters......Page 156
5.3.2 Membrane processes......Page 162
5.3.3 Adsorption......Page 165
5.3.3.2 Manganese dioxide......Page 168
5.3.4 Ion exchange......Page 169
5.3.5 Chemical oxidation......Page 173
5.3.6 Biological processes......Page 175
5.3.7.2 Chemical treatment......Page 177
5.3.7.3 Ultraviolet......Page 178
5.4 Conclusion......Page 182
6.1.2 Chemical properties......Page 184
6.2 Influencing factors......Page 185
6.2.2 Plant equipment......Page 186
6.2.2.1 Tankers......Page 187
6.2.3 Filters......Page 188
6.2.4 Carbon dioxide......Page 189
6.2.6 Packaging formats......Page 190
6.2.6.1 Glass......Page 191
6.2.6.2 Polyethylene terephthalate......Page 193
6.2.6.6 Polycarbonate......Page 195
6.2.6.8 Closures......Page 196
6.3 Labelling......Page 199
6.4 Shelf-life, batch coding and traceability......Page 200
6.5.1 Buildings and facilities......Page 202
6.5.4 Cleaning and disinfection......Page 203
6.5.6 Good manufacturing practice......Page 205
7.1 Introduction......Page 207
7.2 Filling systems......Page 208
7.3 Electropneumatic valve system......Page 215
7.5 Bottle handling......Page 218
7.7 A cleaner environment for the filling process......Page 223
7.7.2 Clean and aseptic filling......Page 227
7.7.3 Clean environment......Page 230
7.9 Carbonation......Page 233
7.10 Flavour dosing......Page 236
7.11 Cleaning-in-place......Page 237
7.11.1 Manual CIP system......Page 240
7.11.2 Automated CIP system......Page 241
8.1 Introduction......Page 245
8.1.1 Why clean?......Page 247
8.2 Cleaners (detergents)......Page 248
8.2.1 Cleaning chemistry......Page 249
8.2.2 The five factors......Page 251
8.2.3 Types of cleaners (detergents)......Page 253
8.3 Sanitizers......Page 254
8.3.1 Regulatory considerations......Page 256
8.3.2 Types of sanitizers and their uses......Page 257
8.3.3 Maximizing effectiveness......Page 262
8.4.1 Cleaning dynamics......Page 266
8.4.1.2 Mechanical methods......Page 267
8.4.2 Master sanitation schedule......Page 269
8.5 Cleaning-in-place......Page 270
8.5.1 Automated CIP......Page 274
8.5.2 Types of CIP systems......Page 275
8.5.3 CIP control and data acquisition......Page 277
8.5.4 CIP program and programming......Page 279
8.5.5 Hot CIP safety precautions......Page 281
8.6 The Dos and Don’ts of cleaning and disinfection......Page 283
9.2 Quality policy......Page 290
9.3 Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point......Page 291
9.4.1 Packaging materials in process......Page 294
9.4.1.2 Closure application......Page 295
9.4.2.1 pH......Page 296
9.4.2.7 Reference samples......Page 297
9.5.1.1 Microbiological analyses......Page 298
9.5.3 New product development......Page 300
9.5.4 Sensory evaluation......Page 301
9.6 Independent or government laboratories......Page 302
9.7 Recognition of source......Page 303
9.8 Industry networking......Page 305
10.2.1 Europe......Page 306
10.2.2 Middle East......Page 307
10.2.3 Asia......Page 308
10.2.6 North America......Page 310
10.3.1 Dispensers......Page 311
10.3.2.1 Wood and glass......Page 318
10.3.2.2 Plastic containers......Page 319
10.3.2.3 Bag-in-box containers......Page 320
10.3.2.4 Caps......Page 321
10.4 Water categories for water coolers......Page 322
10.5 The bottling process......Page 323
10.6 Handling, transportation and service......Page 325
10.7 Hygiene......Page 327
10.8 Trade associations......Page 329
11.1 Introduction......Page 331
11.2 Conduct of audits......Page 332
11.3 Setting the criteria for the audit......Page 333
11.4.1 Source......Page 334
11.4.2 Exterior of bottling plant......Page 335
11.4.3 Plant construction and design......Page 336
11.4.4 Hygiene measures and controls......Page 337
11.4.6 Equipment and procedures......Page 339
11.4.7 Process and controls......Page 340
11.5 Conclusion of audit and follow-up actions......Page 341
12.1 Introduction......Page 343
12.2.1 Physical component......Page 344
12.2.2 Chemical component......Page 346
12.2.3 Biological component: source of microflora......Page 348
12.2.4 Limits of microbiological studies......Page 349
12.2.5 Major microbiological groups......Page 352
12.2.6 Nutrient limitations and starvation survival......Page 355
12.2.7 The viable but nonculturable state......Page 356
12.3 Bottle habitat......Page 357
12.3.1 The bottle effect......Page 359
12.3.2 Other factors influencing the plate count......Page 360
12.3.3 Growth or resuscitation......Page 361
12.4 Microbial community......Page 364
12.4.2 Heterotrophic bacteria......Page 366
12.4.3 Prosthecate bacteria......Page 367
12.4.4 Pseudomonads, Acinetobacter, Alcaligenes......Page 368
12.4.6 Gram-positive bacteria......Page 372
12.5 Inhibitory effect of autochthonous bacteria......Page 373
12.6.1 Inoculation of the digestive tract of axenic mice......Page 380
12.6.2 Randomized trials in infants......Page 381
12.6.3 Virulence characteristics of bacteria......Page 382
12.7 Assessment and management of microbial health risks......Page 383
12.7.1 Identifying microbial hazards in drinking water......Page 384
12.7.2 Assessment of microbial risks......Page 385
12.7.3.1 Heterotrophic plate counts......Page 386
12.7.3.2 Marker organisms and enteric pathogens......Page 387
12.7.3.3 Pathogens growing in water......Page 389
12.8 Conclusion......Page 390
13.2 Source water protection and monitoring......Page 406
13.3 Water treatment......Page 407
13.4 Naturally occurring bacteria......Page 409
13.5 Product safety......Page 413
13.6 Summary......Page 416
Index......Page 421