Techniques in Forage Quality Analysis

Foreword
Preface
Contents
About the Author
1: Introduction
References
2: Forage Quality and Livestock Productivity
References
3: Forage Quality Indices
3.1 Nutritive Value Index (NVI)
3.2 Digestible Energy Intake (DEI)
3.3 Fill Unit and Feed Unit
3.4 Quality Index (QI)
3.5 Relative Feed Value (RFV)
3.6 Relative Forage Quality (RFQ)
References
4: Forage Quality Components
4.1 Forage Quality Parameters
4.1.1 Dry Matter
4.1.2 Digestible Dry Matter (DDM)
4.1.3 Digestible Energy (DE)
4.1.4 Crude Protein (CP)
4.1.5 Crude Fiber (CF)
4.1.6 Acid Detergent Insoluble Nitrogen (ADIN)
4.1.7 Ether Extract (EE)
4.1.8 Carbohydrates
4.1.9 Ash
4.1.10 Nitrogen-Free Extract (NFE)
4.1.11 Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN)
4.1.12 Net Energy (NE)
4.1.13 Amino Acids
4.2 Forage Antiquality Parameters
4.2.1 Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF) and Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF)
4.2.2 Polyphenolic Compounds
4.2.3 Lignin
4.3 Forage Antinutritional Parameters
4.3.1 Alkaloids
4.3.2 Saponins
4.3.3 Cyanogens
4.3.4 Oxalates
4.3.5 Protease and α-Amylase Inhibitors
4.3.6 Nitrates
4.3.7 Nonprotein Amino Acids
4.3.8 Phytoestrogens
References
5: Management of Antinutrients in Forages
5.1 Lignin
5.2 Tannins
5.3 Saponins
5.4 Oxalate
5.5 Nitrates
5.6 Mimosine
5.7 Protease Inhibitor, α-Amylase Inhibitors, and Lectins
References
6: General Scheme for Forage Quality Analysis
6.1 Forage Quality Analysis
6.1.1 Destructive Methods of Forage Quality Analysis
6.1.2 Nondestructive Methods of Forage Quality Analysis
References
7: Laboratory Essentials for Forage Evaluation
7.1 Instrumentation for Forage Quality Analysis
7.2 Laboratory Gadgets
Reference
8: Solutions and Buffers in Estimations
8.1 Preparation of Solutions
8.1.1 Representation of Concentration of Solutions
8.1.2 Stock and Working Solutions
8.1.3 Standard, Saturated and Super Saturated Solutions
8.1.4 Formulation of Acid Solutions
8.1.5 Examples of Common Laboratory Solutions
8.1.5.1 Example 1: Preparation of 1 Molar (M) Solution of Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
8.1.5.2 Example 2: Preparation of 1 molal (m) Solution of Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
8.1.5.3 Example 3: Preparation of 1 Normal (N) Solution
8.1.5.4 Example 4: Preparation of 1 ppm (Parts per million) Solution
8.2 Preparation of Buffers
8.2.1 Concept of Acidity and Basicity
8.2.2 Oxidation and Reduction
8.2.3 pH and pH Indicators
8.2.4 Buffers
8.2.5 Preparation of Acetic Acid and Sodium Acetate Buffer (pH, 4.6)
8.2.5.1 Material and Reagents
8.2.5.2 Procedure
8.2.6 Preparation of Phosphate Buffer (pH, 6.8)
8.2.6.1 Material and Reagents
8.2.6.2 Procedure
8.2.7 Preparation of Carbonate-Bicarbonate Buffer (pH, 10.2)
8.2.7.1 Material and Reagents
8.2.7.2 Procedure
8.2.8 Preparation of some Important Buffers and Solutions
References
9: Estimation of Nutritional Components in Forages
9.1 Estimation of Dry Matter (DM) in Forages
9.1.1 Dry Matter Estimation in Bulk Feed Samples
9.1.2 Dry Matter Estimation in Laboratory Samples
9.1.3 Dry Matter Estimation Silage, Haylage, and Molasses
9.2 Crude Protein Estimation by Micro-Kjeldahl´s Method (AOAC 1970)
9.3 Determination of True Protein and Nonprotein Nitrogen in Feed Samples
9.4 Estimation of Ammonia Nitrogen in Feed Samples
9.5 Estimation of Urea Nitrogen
9.6 Estimation of Total Soluble Proteins by Lowry´s Method (Lowry et al. 1951)
9.7 Determination of Crude Fiber in Forages (AOAC 1965)
9.8 Determination of Crude Fat (Ether Extract)
9.9 Identification and Quantification of Fatty Acids by Gas Liquid Chromatography (Metcalfe et al. 1966)
9.10 Estimation of Total Carbohydrates (Hedge and Hofreiter 1962)
9.11 Colorimetric Determination of Reducing Sugars (Liu and Jiang 2007)
9.12 Estimation of Reducing Sugars by Nelson-Somogyi´s and DNS Method (Somogyi 1952; Miller 1959)
9.12.1 Nelson-Somogyi´s Method
9.12.2 Dinitrosalicylic (DNS) Acid Method
9.13 Determination of Nitrogen-Free Extract (NFE)
9.14 Estimation of Starch
9.15 Estimation of Nonstarch Polysaccharides
9.16 Estimation of Cellulose in Forages
9.17 Determination of In Vitro, In Sacco, and In Vivo Digestibility of Forages
9.17.1 In Vitro Dry Matter Digestibility
9.17.2 Estimation of In Vitro Dry Matter Digestibility by Two-Stage Digestion Method (Tilley and Terry 1963)
9.17.3 In Sacco Determination of Forage Digestibility
9.17.4 Determination of In Vivo Digestibility of Feed
9.18 Calculation of Organic Matter Digestibility from Dry Matter Digestibility
9.19 Calculation of Metabolizable Energy
9.20 Protein Profiling of Forages Using SDS-PAGE (Laemmli 1970)
9.21 Forage Quality Analysis Using Near-Infrared Technology
References
10: Estimation of Antiquality and Antinutritional Factors in Forages
10.1 Determination of Different Antiquality Factors in Forages
10.1.1 Determination of Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF) (Van Soest and Wiens 1967)
10.1.2 Estimation of Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF) (Van Soest and Wiens 1967)
10.1.3 Estimation of Cellulose and Silica in Forages (Van Soest and Wine 1968)
10.1.4 Estimation of Lignin Content in Forages
10.1.4.1 Determination of Acid Detergent Lignin (ADL) (Van Soest and Wiens 1967)
10.1.4.2 Estimation of Permanganate Lignin in Forages
10.1.4.3 Quantification of Lignin by the Thioglycolic Acid Method, Acetyl Bromide Method, and Klason Method (Moreira-Vilar et ...
Protein-Free Cell Wall Preparation
Thioglycolic Acid Method
Acetyl Bromide Method
Klason Method
10.2 Determination of Different Antinutritional Factors in Forages
10.2.1 Estimation of Oxalate Content (Mahadevan 1979)
10.2.2 Determination of Oxalic Acid in Forage Samples Using HPLC (Rehman et al. 2007)
10.2.3 Estimation of Saponin Content in Forages (Akhidue and Monago 2002)
10.2.4 Estimation of Cyanogenic Glycosides in Forages (AOAC 1995)
10.2.4.1 Qualitative Test
10.2.4.2 Titrimetric Method for Quantitative Test
Acid Titration Method
Alkaline Titration Method
10.2.5 Estimation of Phenols (Makkar 2003)
10.2.6 Estimation of Tannin Content Using Folin Denis Reagent (AOAC 1995)
10.2.7 Determination of Condensed Tannins (Proanthocyanidins)
10.2.8 Determination of Condensed Tannins Using Vanillin Reagent (Price et al. 1978)
10.2.9 Characterization of Phenolic Compounds by Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC)
10.2.9.1 Characterization of Condensed Tannins
Preparation of Plant Material
10.2.9.2 Analysis of Condensed and Hydrolysable Tannins by TLC
10.2.10 Determination of Gallotannins in Forages Using HPLC
10.2.10.1 Preparation of Sample for the Determination of Free Gallic Acid
10.2.10.2 Preparation of Sample for the Determination of Gallic Acid Present in Free and in Gallotannin Forms
10.2.10.3 HPLC Conditions for Analysis
10.2.11 Determination of Protein-Precipitable Phenolics
10.2.12 Protein-Binding Capacity by Filter Paper Assay (Dawra et al. 1988)
10.2.13 Estimation of Nitrates and Nitrites in Forages (Wiseman and Jacobson 1965)
10.2.14 Estimation of Nitrate-N (AOAC 1970)
10.2.15 Estimation of Trypsin Inhibitor in Forages (Roy and Rao 1971)
10.2.16 Estimation of Mimosine Content (Mastumoto and Sherman 1951)
10.2.17 Estimation of Alkaloids
10.2.18 Determination of Phytic Acid Content (Wheeler and Ferrel 1971)
10.2.19 Estimation of Nitric Oxide (Marcocci et al. 1994)
References
11: Estimation of Mineral Content in Forages
11.1 Determination of Ash Content (AOAC 2000)
11.2 Estimation of Acid Insoluble Ash
11.3 Estimation of Calcium Content (Piper 1950)
11.4 Estimation of Phosphorus Content (Fiske and Subbarao 1925)
11.5 Estimation of Potassium Content (Jackson 1962)
11.6 Mineral Analysis Using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (Smith and Storey 1976)
11.7 Flame Photometric Determination of Sodium and Potassium (Havre 1961)
11.8 Flame Photometric Determination of Calcium (Havre 1961)
11.9 Determination of Zinc by Colorimetric Dithizone Method (Reed and Cummings 1940)
11.10 Colorimetric Determination of Iron (Moss and Mellon 1942)
References
12: Estimation of Phytochemicals and Enzyme Activities in Forages
12.1 Estimation of Phytochemicals in Forages
12.1.1 Estimation of Total Flavonoids (Reis et al. 2011)
12.1.2 Estimation of Flavanols
12.1.3 Estimation of Chlorophyll Content in Forages (Arnon 1949)
12.1.4 Estimation of Antioxidant Activity (Sharma and Bhat 2009)
12.1.5 Estimation of Ortho-Dihydroxyphenols (Nair and Vaidyanathan 1964)
12.1.6 Estimation of Hydrogen Peroxide (Sinha 1972)
12.1.7 Estimation of Malondialdehyde (MDA) (Heath and packer 1968)
12.1.8 Estimation of Glutathione Content (Beutler et al. 1963)
12.1.9 Estimation of Proline Content (Bates et al. 1973)
12.2 Determination of Polyphenol Oxidase (PPO) Activity (Augustin et al. 1985)
12.3 Estimation of Peroxidase (POD) Enzyme Activity (Summer and Gjessing 1943)
12.4 Estimation of Catalase Activity (Barber 1980)
12.5 Estimation of L-Phenylalanine Ammonia Lyase (PAL) Activity
12.6 Estimation of Tyrosine Ammonia Lyase (TAL) Activity (Rao and Nayudu 1979)
12.7 Estimation of Polyamine Oxidase (PAO) and Diamine Oxidase (DAO) Activity
12.7.1 Estimation of Polyamine Oxidase Activity (Holmstead et al. 1961)
12.7.2 Estimation of Polyamine Oxidase Activity (Holmstead et al. 1961)
12.8 Estimation of Ascorbate Oxidase Activity (Felton and summers 1993)
12.9 Estimation of Glutathione Reductase Activity (Schaedle and Bassham 1977)
12.10 Estimation of Dehydroascorbate Reductase Activity (Nakano and Asada 1981)
12.11 Estimation of Ascorbate Peroxidase Activity (Asada and Takahashi 1987)
12.12 Estimation of Guaiacol Peroxidase Activity (Shannon et al. 1966)
12.13 Estimation of Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) Activity (Becana et al. 1986)
References
13: Quality Evaluation of Natural Grasslands and Pastures
13.1 Determination of Quality of Grasslands and Pastures Using Remote Sensing Technology
13.1.1 Proximal Remote Sensing
13.1.2 Aerial and Space-Based Remote Sensing
13.2 UAV Hyperspectral Imagery Technique to Quantify Rangeland Biomass and Nitrogen Content
References
14: Nutritional Quality of Important Forages
14.1 Nutritional Quality of Important Forage Legumes
14.2 Nutritional Quality of Important Forage Grasses
14.3 Nutritional Quality of Important Fodder Trees
References
15: Conservation and Processing of Forages
15.1 Feed Pelletization
15.2 Hay Making
15.2.1 Process of Hay Making
15.2.2 Some Considerations During Hay Making
15.3 Silage Preparation
15.3.1 Advantages of Silage Preparation
15.3.2 Forage Material for Silage Making
15.3.3 Silage Preparation Process
15.3.3.1 Procedure
15.3.4 Characteristics of Good Quality Silage
15.3.5 Some Considerations During Silage Making
15.4 Baleage or Haylage
15.5 Processing of Grains for Livestock Feeding
15.5.1 Cracking, Dry Rolling, and Grinding
15.5.2 High Moisture (Reconstitution) Treatment Followed by Rolling
15.5.3 Pelleting
15.5.4 Steam Flaking
15.5.5 Pressure Flaking
15.5.6 Extrusion
15.5.7 Ensiling
15.5.8 Micronization
15.5.9 Chemical Treatment
15.5.10 Popping
15.5.11 Gelatinization
15.5.12 Roasting
References
16: Factors Affecting Forage Quality
16.1 Effect of Preharvesting Conditions
16.1.1 Seasonal Variations
16.1.2 Temperature and Altitude
16.1.3 Soil Properties and Fertilization
16.1.4 Maturity Stage
16.1.5 Crop Species
16.1.6 Forage Cultivar (Variety)
16.1.7 Foliar Diseases and Insect Damage
16.1.8 Antinutritional Factors
16.2 Postharvest Conditions and Forage Quality
16.2.1 Respiration and Temperature
16.2.2 Moisture Content
16.2.3 Fermentation
16.2.4 Aerobic Deterioration
16.2.5 Rainfall
16.3 Effect of Microbes on Nutritional Quality of Forages
16.3.1 Fungal Contamination
16.3.2 Fungal Propagule Count
16.3.3 Mycotoxins
16.3.3.1 Aspergillus
16.3.3.2 Penicillium
16.3.3.3 Fusarium
References
17: Forage Nutritional Quality Management
17.1 Preharvest Managements for Modulating Nutritional Quality of Forages
17.2 Postharvest Management Practices
17.2.1 Physical Treatments
17.2.2 Chemical Treatments
17.2.2.1 Alkali Treatment
17.2.2.2 Ammoniation
17.2.2.3 Urea Treatment
17.2.2.4 Acid Treatment
17.2.3 Biological Treatments
17.2.3.1 Lignocellulolytic Fungi
White-Rot Fungi
Brown-Rot Fungi
17.2.3.2 Bacterial Treatment
17.2.4 Exogenous Fibrolytic Enzymes (EFE)
17.2.5 Supplementation
17.3 Modern Techniques for Nutritional Quality Enhancement in Forages
References
Appendix
Units and Their Symbols
Decimal Multiples and Submultiples
Unit of Mass
Units of Volume
Units of Length
Constant for Acid and Bases
Forage Value of Common Species in Grasslands and Pastures
Abbreviations
Glossary