Task-Based Language Teaching and Assessment: Contemporary Reflections from Across the World

Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
Part I Task-Based Language Teaching
1 Task-Based Language Teaching: A Multifaceted Approach
Task-Based Language Teaching: Origin and Development
Procedural Syllabus
Process Syllabus
Task-Based Language Teaching and Learning
Overview of Chapters in This Volume
References
2 Second Thoughts About Second-Language Teaching
L1 - L2
The Four Skills
Sentence and Text
The Role of Grammar
3 The Undiscovered Vygotsky in Prabhu
Introduction
Prabhu’s Use of Vygotsky’s Concepts of Mediation and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Prabhu and Vygotsky’s Views on First and Second (‘Foreign’) Language
Teaching and Learning Theories
Learner Effort
Vygotsky’s Concept of ‘Internalization’ and Prabhu’s Concept of ‘Subconscious Acquisition’
Comprehension and Production
Ideation in Prabhu and Vygotsky
Motivation
Conclusion
Appendix
Analysis of this transcript
References
4 Task-Based Language Teaching: Early Days, Now and into the Future
Introduction
A Brief History of Task-Based Language Teaching
Second-Language Acquisition Research
Early TBLT Proposals
Rationale for TBLT
Defining ‘Task’
Classifying Tasks
Grading and Sequencing Tasks
Subsequent Developments
Broadening the Rationale for TBLT
Defining ‘Task’
Task Types
Task Selection
Task Complexity
Methodological Issues
Other Developments
Tasks in Content-Based and Content Integrated Language Learning
Technologically Mediated TBLT
Task-Based Assessment
Where We Have Got to?
Where Are We Going?
Misunderstanding of the Nature of a Task
Teachers’ Lack of Certainty About TBLT for Beginner-Level Learners
Teachers’ Limited L2 Oral Proficiency
Students’ Overuse of the L1
Difficulty in Selecting Tasks Suited to the Students’ Level
Implementing TBLT in Large Classes is Difficult
Lack of Task-Based Resources
Grammar in Task-Based Teaching
Preparing Students for Formal Examinations
Teachers May Lack Training in TBLT
Conclusion
References
5 An Evolution of a Framework for TBLT: What Trainers and Teachers Need to Know to Help Learners Succeed in Task-Based Learning
Early Stages of Task-Based Language Teaching
The Spread of TBLT
What is a Task? Criteria Framed as Questions 
How Does TBLT Differ from PPP and Other Lesson Frameworks?
Why a Three-Stage Task Cycle with a Report Stage?
What Are the Teachers’ Roles During a Task-Based Framework?
Pre-task
The Task Cycle
Focus on Form
Some Myths About TBLT
How Does This TBL Framework Fulfil the Conditions for Learning Derived from SLA Research Findings?
Four Key Conditions for Language Learning
Handling Grammar
How Flexible Can This Framework Be?
Lesson Planning
Report Stage
Adaptations to Meet Student Needs
Group and Pair Work
Is Task-Based Teaching Suitable for Novice Trainees?
The Continuing Need for More Training
Current Challenges and Some Possible Solutions
Appendix 1: A Sample Form Focus Activity—Elementary
Appendix 2: A Sample Form-Focused Activity for Beginner Learners
References
6 From Needs Analysis to Task-Based Design: Methodology, Assessment and Programme Evaluation
Introduction
Defining Needs Analysis
The Role of NA in TBLT Programme Design
The Usefulness of NA for Task Selection, Task Design and Task Sequencing
How NA May Inform Task Methodology
How NA Can Aid the Implementation of General Methodological Principles
How NA Can Aid the Implementation of Pedagogical Procedures
How NA May Help with Pedagogical Options in the Pre-task
The Role of NA in Task-Based Language Assessment
The Role of NA in Identifying Tasks’ General Characteristics
The Role of NA in Determining the Interactional Dimension of Assessment Tasks
The Role of NA in Determining the Psycholinguistic Dimension of Assessment Tasks
The Role of NA in Determining the Cognitive Dimension of Assessment Tasks
The Role of NA in Determining the Technological Dimension of Assessment Tasks
The Role of NA in Measuring Performance on Assessment Tasks
The Role of NA in Programme Evaluation
Conclusions
References
7 Differentiating Task Repetition from Task Rehearsal
Introduction
Conventional Views of Task Repetition/Rehearsal
Theoretical Underpinning of Repeating a Task
Types of Repetition
Types of Repetition Condition
Types of Repetition Intervals
Frequency of Repetition
Problems with the Conventional Views of Task Repetition
Differencing Task Repetition from Rehearsal on Performance
Effects of Task Repetition on CAF
Effects of Rehearsal on CAF
Studies Without Demarcation Between Repetition and Rehearsal
Conclusion and Implications
References
8 Task Complexity and Language Proficiency: Its Effect on L2 Writing Production
Introduction
The Allocation of Attentional Resources and Task Demands
The Limited Attentional Capacity Model and the Triadic Componential Framework
Limited Attentional Capacity Model
The Triadic Componential Framework
Proficiency as a Variable
The Study
Research Questions
Task Conditions
Measures Used to Examine L2 Written Production
Methodology
Participants
Task Stimuli
Procedure
Results and Discussion
Task Difficulty Questionnaire
Conclusion
Implications for Teaching of Writing
References
9 From Cognitive Grammar to Pedagogic Grammar: Macrostrategies for Designing Form-Focused Tasks
Introduction
Form Focus in Communicative Contexts
Reference Grammar to Pedagogical Grammar
Principles of Cognitive Grammar
Grammar is Meaningful
Meaning is Conceptualization
Language is Usage-Based
CG and Language Pedagogy
Applying CG to Language Pedagogy
Macrostrategies for Drawing on Principles of CG
MS1: Present Grammar as a Meaningful Phenomenon and not as a Set of Idiosyncratic Rules
MS2: Introduce Grammatical Elements in Context
MS3: Explain Each Grammatical Construction as a Matter of Choice and Show that Other Plausible Alternatives Exist in Most Cases
MS4: Move from ‘Correct–Incorrect’ Paradigm to ‘More Appropriate–Less Appropriate’
MS5: Present Related/Competing Grammatical Elements Together
MS6: Raise Language Awareness
From CG to PG and Actual Classroom Tasks: An Illustration
Present and Past Participial Adjectives
Participles in CG
Task Design and Sequencing
From CG to PG: Challenges and the Way Forward
Appendix 1: Sample Form-Focused Tasks Based on CG
References
10 Designing and Using Tasks to Foster Metaphoric Competence Among Learners in Indian Contexts
Introduction
Metaphors in Everyday Usage and Metaphoric Competence
Metaphor in Everyday Life
Metaphoric Competence as an Essential Part of Communicative Competence
Teaching and Learning of Metaphor in Classroom Contexts
Traditional Approaches to Teaching and Learning of Metaphor
Teaching and Learning of Metaphoric Expressions in Indian Contexts
Conceptual Metaphor Theory
Conceptual Metaphor in Classroom
A Task-Based Framework to Foster Metaphoric Competence
Selection of Target Metaphoric Expressions
Designing and Sequencing Tasks
Trialing the Tasks in Actual Classroom
Conclusions
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
References
Part II Task-Based Language Assessment
11 Task-Based Language Assessment for Large-Scale and Classroom-Based Oral and Print Assessments
Task-Based Language Assessment (TBLA): Inception and Progress
Principles of TBLA
Researching TBLA
Overview of Chapters in Part 2
References
12 Validation of a Large-Scale Task-Based Test: Functional Progression in Dialogic Speaking Performance
Introduction
Challenges of Large-Scale TBLA
Task Validation: Expected Versus Elicited Functions
Systematic Investigation into Expected and Elicited Functions
The Context of This Study
Research Questions
Methodology
Results and Discussion
Preliminary Analysis Per Task (RQ1)
Language Functions Observed at Each ISE Level (RQ1)
Preliminary Analysis Per Exam Level (RQ2)
Ways in Which Functions Were Realized (RQ2)
Conclusion
Appendix 1: Sample ISE Task Questions
Appendix 2: Transcription Notation
References
13 Communicative Strategies as a Tool for Assessing Spoken Interactional Competence
Introduction
Communicative Strategies and Second Language Acquisition
Communicative Strategies as a Construct for Testing Interactional Speech Competence
The Study
Participants
Tasks
Method of Data Analysis
The Findings
Tracking the Development in the Use of CSs: A Qualitative Analysis
Self-correction: From Grammatical Accuracy to Semantic Appropriacy
Change in the Use of Interpretive Summary
Change in the Nature of CSs: Use of Fillers
Discussion: Implications for Assessment
Assessment Implications for ESL Learners
Conclusion
Appendix 1
References
14 Effect of Task Structure and Interaction Conditions on Oral Performance
Introduction
Previous Research
Our Study
Tasks
Participants and Procedures of Data Collection
Coding, Transcription and Analysis
Results
Discussion
Implications
Conclusion
References
15 Using Task-Based Speaking Assessment to Measure Lexical and Syntactic Knowledge: Implications for ESL Learning
Introduction
Assessing Speaking and Listening (ASL)
Using Assessment Practice as a Facilitative Tool
Task-Based Language Assessment: A Solution to the Problem
Task-Based Speaking Assessment (TBSA) in Classroom Context
Role of Task Features in TBSA
The Study
Participants
Task Design
Findings and Interpretation
Step One: Task Selection (or Design)
Step Two: Creation of a Content Checklist
Step Three: Creation of Task-Specific Comprehensive Criteria
Step Four: Incorporating Micro-Aspects of ‘Form Focus’ in Communicative Tasks for Assessment Criteria
Conclusion
References
16 Whole Text Reading Comprehension: An Application of Task-Based Language Assessment
Introduction
Whole Text Comprehension
Summary as an Application of TBLA to Assess Whole Text Comprehension
Assessing Reading Using Summaries
Aligning Whole Text Reading Comprehension to Cognition Hypothesis
Applying Cognition Hypothesis in Text Selection
Text Structure as a Resource-Directing Feature
Text Internal Rhetoric as a Resource-Directing Feature
A Sample Analysis of Text for Cognitive Complexity
Assessing Text-Based Summary Recalls
Creation of Summary Propositions (SPs)
Individual Variations in Summary Recall
Designing a Classroom-Based Assessment of Whole Text Comprehension
Steps to Develop a Sample Summary Task
Deleting Ideas
Adding Ideas
Substituting Ideas
Idea Distortions
Conclusion
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
References
17 Tasks in Language Acquisition Research: More Than What Meets the Blinking Eye
Introduction
Language Acquisition Tasks: Issues in Design and Measurement
Grammaticality Judgement Task
Truth Value Judgement Task
Elicited Imitation Task
Dictation Task
Picture Description Task
Narrative Retelling Task
Methodological Considerations
Conclusion
References