Systems Research for Behavioral Science will be of interest to those in any discipline concerned with developments in science. It is addressed principally to the student of human behavior as that study is approached from the social side.Previously, the study of human behavior was the general area of science that had been slowest to respond to the exciting challenge of the modern systems outlook. Yet it is behavioral science that stands to gain the most from insights into the workings of more complex systems.
The editor presents not only a fair selection of systems research in behavioral science, but also provides an extensive selection of important statements of general principles, including several already considered classics. Hence, this sourcebook may function in part as a principles text, exposing the initiate to original pioneering statements as well as later work inspired by them, and alerting the sizeable number of underexposed scholars who are over-familiar with the few terms such as feedback, boundary, input, and output, that there are much greater depths to plumb than meet the eye in semi-popular accounts of cybernetics.
This volume is an overview of thinking that reflects a trend toward the system point of view. Some of the chapters are philosophical: they discuss the significance of the trend as a development in the contemporary philosophy of science. Some are inevitably detailed and technical. Still other chapters discuss the relevance of concepts that are central in the system approach, to particular fields of research. The picture that emerges is far from that of a unified theory. It is an open question whether much progress can be made by attempts to construct a "unified theory of systems" on some rigorous axiomatic base.
Author(s): Walter Buckley
Edition: 1
Publisher: Routledge
Year: 2008
Language: English
Commentary: No attempt at file size reduction
Pages: 552
Tags: Cybernetics; Behavioral Sciences
Cover
Half Title
Title
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Preface
Foreword
Note
General Introduction
PART I: General Systems Research: Overview
1. General Systems Theory—The Skeleton of Science
2. General System Theory—A Critical Review
1. The Rise of Interdisciplinary Theories
2. Methods of General Systems Research
3. Homeostasis and Open Systems
4. Criticism of General System Theory
5. Advances of General System Theory
OPEN SYSTEMS
GROWTH-IN-TIME
RELATIVE GROWTH
COMPETITION AND RELATED PHENOMENA
SYSTEMS ENGINEERING
PERSONALITY THEORY
Theoretical History
3. Cybernetics in History
PART II: Parts, Wholes, and Levels of Integration
4. Parts and Wholes in Physics
Notes
5. The Problem of Systemic Organization in Theoretical Biology
I. Introduction
II. General System Theory in Biology
III. The Principle of System Organization and Some Controversial Questions of Evolutionary Biology
IV. Summary
Notes
6. Units and Concepts of Biology
Entities
Levels
Becoming; History
Behaving; Regulation
Being; Organization
Conclusion
Notes
7. Levels of Integration in Biological and Social Systems
PART III: Systems, Organization, and the Logic of Relations
8. Thoughts on Organization Theory
9. Certain Peculiarities of Organisms as a “System” from the Point of View of Physics, Cybernetics, and Biology
Which Organisms Are Involved?
The Relationships between Different Degrees of Organizational Development of Systems
10. Definition of System
1. Introduction
2. Definition of “System”
2.1 OBJECTS
2.2 ATTRIBUTES
2.3 RELATIONSHIPS
3. Examples of Physical Systems
4. Examples of Abstract or Conceptual Systems
5. Abstract Systems as Models
6. Definition of Environment
7. Systems and Their Environments
8. Subsystems
9, Macroscopic vs. Microscopic Views of Systematic Behavior
10. Some Macroscopic Properties of Systems
11. Natural and Man-Made Systems
11. 1 NATURAL SYSTEMS
11.2 MAN-MADE SYSTEMS
11.3 SYSTEMS WITH RANDOMNESS
12. Isomorphism
13. The State-Determined System
1 3 .1 DEFINITION OF STATE-DETERMINED SYSTEM
13.2 PROPERTIES OF STATE-DETERMINED SYSTEMS
14. Summary and Additional Remarks
11 .A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity
Consequences
12. The General and Logical Theory of Automata
Preliminary Considerations
The Future Logical Theory of Automata
Principles of Digitalization
Formal Neural Networks
The Concept of Complication; Self-Reproduction
13. Principles of the Se lf Organizing System
What is "Organization"?
Whole and Parts
Machines in General
“Good” Organization
Self-Organizing Systems
The Spontaneous Generation of Organization
Competition
Requisite Variety
The Future
Summary
PART IV: Information, Communication, and Meaning
14. What Is Information Measurement?
Basic Concepts
The Transmission Situation
The Sequential Situation
15. Variety, Constraint, and the Law of Requisite Variety
Constraint
Importance of Constraint
Requisite Variety
The Law of Requisite Variety
16. The Promise and Pitfalls of Information Theorv
Notes
A. ENTROPY AND LIFE
17. Order, Disorder, and Entropy
A Remarkable General Conclusion from the Model
Order Based on Order
Living Matter Evades the Decay to Equilibrium
It Feeds on 'Negative Entropy'
What is Entropy ?
The Statistical Meaning of Entropy
Organization Maintained by Extracting 'Order' from the Environment
Notes
18. Life, Thermodynamics, and Cybernetics
The Attitude of the Scientist
The Second Principle of Thermodynamics, Its Successes and Its Shortcomings
If Nature Could Run Backward
Life and Its Relations with the Second Principle
Living Organisms and Dead Structures
Entropy and Intelligence
Notes
19. Communication, Entropy, and Life
The Second Law of Thermodynamics Is Obeyed
Information Storage and Equilibrium
Catalysis
Conclusion
20. Thermodynamics and Information Theory
Similarity between Information and Negentropy
How to Define Information ?
Processes That May Increase Information
Computation and the Exact Role of Computers
Notes
21. The Entropy Concept and Psychic Function
22. From Stimulus to Symbol: The Economy of Biological Computation
Environment: An Analysis
Internal Representation of Environment: A Physiology
Symbolization: A Synthesis
B. BEHAVIOR AND MEANING
23. The Application of Information Theory in Behavioral Studies
Introduction
The Application of Information Theory in Behavioral Studies
24. A Behavioristic Analysis of Perception and Language as Cognitive Phenomena
Projection
Integration
Representation
Perception and Meaning
Summary
25. The Informational Analysis of Questions and Commands
Introduction
The Impact of Information on the Organism
Perception and Communication
Questions
The Meaning of a Question
Commands
Quantitative Aspects
Conclusions
Notes
26. Towards a Behavioral Theory of Communication
Introduction
An Apology
Some Fundamental Concepts
1 . A PURPOSEFUL STATE
2. COURSES OF ACTION
3. EFFICIENCY
4. VALUE
5. MESSAGE
Communication
1. THE VALUE OF A COMMUNICATION
2. TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
2.1 INFORMATION'
2.2 INSTRUCTION'
2.3 MOTIVATION
Conclusion
Notes
PART V. Cybernetics: Purpose, Self-Regulation, and Self-Direction
A. CYBERNETICS AND PURPOSE
27. Behavior, Purpose, and Teleology
28. Comments on a Mechanistic Conception of Purposefulness
Notes
29. Purposeful and Non-Pur poseful Behavior
30. Purposeful and Non-Purposeful Behavior: A Rejoinder
Some Difficulties
An Alternative Conception
Some Misunderstandings
Notes
31. Purposive Behavior and Cybernetics
Notes
32. Purpose and Learning Theory
Two Frames of Reference
Reformulations of “Teleology”
Hullian Theory and “Purpose”
Tolmanian Theory and “Purpose”
B. HOMEOSTASIS AND EVOLUTION
33. Self-Regulation of the Body
I
II
III
34. On the Parallel between Learning and Evolution
Introduction
The Concept of Complexity
Complexity in Biological Systems
Evolution by Variation and Selection
Systems with the Property of Evolution
Does Learning Involve an Increase in Complexity?
Complexity in Time
The Mechanism of Learning in the Central Nervous System
The Types of Learning
Conditioned Reflex Type I
Latent Learning
Habituation
Conditioned Reflex Type II and Trial-and-Error Learning
Insight Learning
Imprinting
Conclusion: The Location of Memory
Summary
Notes
35. Purpose, Adaptation, and “Directive Correlation”
The Key Position of the Concept of Adaptation
The Concept o f Appropriateness
Transition to the Concept of Adaptation
The Coenetic Variable
Directive Correlation
The Focal Condition
Degrees of Adaptation
The Asymmetry of Adaptation
The Independence of the Focal Condition and the Coenetic Variable
Directive Correlation and the Teleological Fallacy
Notes
36. Regulation and Control
Survival
Regulation and Variety
Control
Some Variations
37. The Second Cybernetics: Deviation-Amplifying Mutual Causal Processes
PART VI. Self-Regulation and Self-Direction in Psychological Systems
38. Feedback Theory and the Reflex Arc Concept
Conclusion
Notes
39. Plasticity in Human Sensorimotor Control
Studies of Disordered Motor-Sensory Feedback
Motor-Sensory Feedback
Motor-Sensory Correlation
Decorrelated Feedback
Visual-Motor Disarrangement
Auditory-Motor Disarrangement
Discussion
Summary
Notes
40. A Cybernetic Approach to Motivation
Alternative Approaches to Motivation
Behavior as a Succession of Adjustments
Decision Making and Voluntary Conduct
Utility of the Cybernetic Model
41. Ego Psychology, Cybernetics, and Learning Theory
I. The Passing of “Habit” and the Rediscovery of “Consciousness”
II. Cybernetics as the Science of Communication and Control
Ill. Psychology of the Ego and Superego
Notes
42. The Open System in Personality Theory
A Psycholinguistic Trifle
The Concept of System
TRANSATLANTIC PERSPECTIVE
General Systems Theory
Some Examples
Final Word
Notes
43. Note on Self-Regulating Systems and Stress
Detection
Identification
Response Availability
44. The Concept of Stress in Relation to the Disorganization of Human Behaviour
45. Towards an Information-Flow Model o f Human Behaviour
I. Introductory
II. Goal-guided Activity
III. Organizing the Trial Process
IV. A Statistical Self-Organizing System
V. The Control of Dimensionality
VI. The Representation of the Field of Activity
V II. Conclusion
Notes
46. Plans and the Structure of Behaviour
The Unit of Analysis
Values, Intentions, and the Execution of Plans
Notes
PART VII. Self-Regulation and Self-Direction in Sociocultural Systems
47. Toward a Cybernetic Model of Man and Society
The Classical Model of Mechanism
The Classical Concept of Organism
Selfmodifying Networks as Generalized Models of Organization in Machines, Minds, and Societies
The Feedback Concept
Learning and Purpose
Complex Networks: Messages and Symbols
Switchboards and Values
Consciousness
Autonomy, Integrity, and Freedom
Freedom and Coherence in Societies
Notes
A. SOCIAL CONTROL: INTERNAL VARIETY AND CONSTRAINTS
48. Social Control and Self Regulation
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
Notes
49. Conformity-Deviation and the Social Control Concept
I
II
III
Notes
50. Variety and Constraint in Cultural Adaptation
The Patri-Local Band
Baja California
Conclusions
51. A Behavioural Theory of Drug Taking
Amplification of Deviation
The Image of Drugs
The Influence of Cultures
National Differences
The Basic Problem
B. SOCIAL CONTROL: ORGANIZATIONAL GOAL SEEKING
52. A Systems Analysis o f Political Life
Political Life as an Open and Adaptive System
Equilibrium Analysis and Its Shortcomings
Minimal Concepts for a Systems Analysis
The Linkage Variables between Systems
Demands and Supports as Input Indicators
Outputs and Feedback
A Flow Model of the Political System
53. The Cybernetic Analysis of Change in Complex Social Organizations
Notes
54. Feedback Problems of Social Diagnosis and Action
55. Control as an Organizational Process
56. The Cybernetics of Competition: A Biologist's View of Society
The Competitive Exclusion Principle
Have We Proved Too Much ?
The Cybernetics of Monopoly
The Limits of Laissez Faire
The Idea of a System
The Feasibility of Human Wishes
Is Planning Possible ?
57. Is Adaptability Enough ?
The regulating process
Control by error
Control by rule and purpose
Application of the model
Conflict in the system
Dimensions of change
Rapid industrialisation
Disturbance in the system
Political, social, and economic regulators
Controlling rate of change
Value judgements
Conclusions
C. DECISION PROCESSES AND GROUP STRUCTURE
58. Critiques of Game Theory
The Conceptual Achievement of Game Theory
The Scope of Game Theory
Implications of Recent Developments
Conclusions
Notes
59. Society as a Complex Adaptive System
Complex Adaptive Systems: A Paradigm
The Sociocultural Adaptive System
Structure, Process, and Decision Theory
Further Examples
Conclusion
Notes
Selected References
Index
