Systems Approaches to Nuclear Fusion Reactors

Preface
Motivation
Overview
Readership
Acknowledgements
Contents
About the Author
Part I: Introductory Systems and Plasma Fundamentals
Chapter 1: Introduction to Systems Approaches to Nuclear Fusion
1.1 Fusion Physics and Systems Approaches
1.1.1 Fusion Reactors and Systems
1.1.1.1 Introduction
1.1.1.2 Experiencing Fusion Research
1.1.1.3 Types of Systems Approaches
1.1.2 Detailed Monograph Organization
1.1.2.1 Part I - Introductory Systems and Plasma Fundamentals
1.1.2.2 Part II - High-Current Tokamaks
1.1.2.3 Part III - Prototype Tokamak Fusion Reactors
1.1.2.4 Part IV - Helical, Linear and Inertial Fusion Reactor Concepts
1.1.2.5 Part V - Synthesis and Conclusions
1.1.3 A Simplified Description of Plasmas
1.1.4 Tokamak Magnetic Field Coils and Geometry
1.1.5 Plasma Current and MHD Fluid Equilibrium
1.1.6 Plasma Pressure and Confinement Time
1.1.7 Individual Particle Effects in Toroidal Systems
1.1.8 Auxiliary Heating and Current Drive
1.1.9 Elements of a Tokamak Fusion Reactor
1.2 Systems Engineering and Architecture Principles
1.2.1 Elements, Relationships and Systems Thinking
1.2.2 Hierarchy
1.2.3 Aspects
1.2.4 Models
1.2.5 Agility
1.3 Systems Engineering Process Model
1.3.1 Problem Solving Process, Systems Architecture and Design
1.3.2 Concept Development
1.3.3 Constraints
1.3.4 Metrics and Risk
1.4 Systems Emergent Properties, Robustness and Dynamics
1.4.1 Emergent Properties of Systems
1.4.2 Mechanisms for Robustness
1.4.3 Robustness Trade-Offs
1.4.4 Fragilities
1.4.5 Resource Demands
1.4.6 Performance
1.5 Examples of Systems Engineering, Architecture, and Emergent Properties
1.5.1 Building a House
1.5.2 Landing on the Moon and Returning
1.5.3 Guiding an Airplane in Flight
1.6 Systems Reverse Engineering
1.6.1 Identifying Elements and Relationships in Existing Devices
1.6.2 Analysing Metrics and Emergent Properties
1.6.3 Contributing Lessons Learned to the Design Space
1.7 Systems Forward Engineering - From Concept to Architecture
1.7.1 Developing a Solution-Neutral Function
1.7.2 Developing and Implementing Concepts
1.7.3 Organization of Project Management
1.8 Summary Checklists of Systems Strategies for Fusion
1.8.1 Systems Concepts Summary - Checklist 1.1
1.8.2 Analyse Existing Plasma Physics and Nuclear Fusion Machines - Checklist 1.2
1.8.3 Design, Fund, Build and Commission New Fusion Machines - Checklists 1.3A and 1.3B
1.8.3.1 Challenges of Designing a Reactor-Relevant Fusion Experiment
1.8.3.2 Detailed Checklists
1.8.4 Design and Carry Out Fusion Experiments on Existing Machines - Checklist 1.4
1.8.5 Analyse Prototype Reactor Machines and Experiments - Checklist 1.5
1.8.6 Planning and Building Next-Step Fusion Reactor Machines - Checklist 1.6
1.8.7 Designing and Building a Fusion Reactor - Checklist 1.7
1.8.8 Comparing Approaches to Diverse Concept Fusion reactors - Checklist 1.8
1.8.9 Detailed Checklists 1.1 to 1.8
1.8.9.1 Checklist 1.1 Summary of the Main Considerations for Systems Thinking
1.8.9.2 Checklist 1.2: Systems Reverse Engineering and Evaluation
1.8.9.3 Checklist 1.3A: General Systems Considerations of Forward Engineering for Constructing a Fusion Device or Designing Ex...
1.8.9.4 Checklist 1.3B: Systems Forward Engineering for Constructing a Fusion Device
1.8.9.5 Checklist 1.4: Systems Forward engineering for Designing Experiments and Operational Procedures on Fusion Machines
1.8.9.6 Checklist 1.5: Systems Reverse Engineering for Analyzing Superconducting Machines with Long-Pulse plasmas for Prototyp...
1.8.9.7 Checklist 1.6: Systems Reverse Engineering and Evaluation of a Proto-Fusion Reactor Under Construction
1.8.9.8 Checklist 1.7: Systems Strategy for Planning and Building a Demonstration Fusion Reactor
1.8.9.9 Checklist 1.8: Systems Strategy for Comparing Different Fusion Reactor Concepts
References
Chapter 2: Systems Design Space for Tokamak Physics and Engineering
2.1 Developing a Design Space
2.2 Detailed Views of Tokamak Design Space
2.2.1 The Time View
2.2.2 Time Scales and Design Options
2.2.2.1 Tokamak Plasma Time Scales
2.2.2.2 Tokamak Machine Time Scales
2.2.3 Plasma View
2.2.4 Spatial View of Form
2.3 Engineering and Interface Analysis
2.3.1 Engineering Aspects
2.3.2 Interface Analysis
2.4 Operational Scenarios from Tokamaks with Less Than 700 kA Plasma Current
2.4.1 Strategy for Developing a Catalogue of Operational Scenarios
2.4.2 TOSCA
2.4.2.1 Toroidal Field Compression
2.4.2.2 Toroidal Beta Limits from Ohmic Heating
2.4.2.3 Electron Cyclotron Heating at the Second Harmonic
2.4.2.4 Instability Control with Active M = 2 Saddle Coils
2.4.3 TCABR, Formerly TCA
2.4.3.1 Plasma Initiation with Electron Cyclotron Assisted Breakdown
2.4.3.2 Plasma Heating with Alfven Waves
2.4.3.3 Ohmic H-Modes with Electrostatic Biasing of Plasma Edge
2.4.4 Neutral Beam Heating with PLT and COMPASS
2.4.4.1 H-mode Experiments with Neutral Beam Heating in Dee Shaped Plasmas with an Open Divertor Configuration with Carbon Til...
2.4.4.2 High Field Side (HFS) Error Correction Coils (ECC)
2.4.5 Tokamak T-10, Successor to T-3 and T-4
2.4.5.1 Electron Internal Transport Barrier (e-ITB)
2.4.5.2 ITER-Grade Heat Flux to a Tungsten Limiter
2.4.6 HL-2A, Formerly ASDEX, and HL-2 M
2.4.6.1 ELM-Control RMP, LHCD, LBO-Seeded Impurities (Al, Fe, W) and Impurity SMBI (Ar, Ne)
2.4.6.2 Strategies to Control Toroidal Alfven Eigenmodes (TAE) Driven by Energetic Ions
2.4.6.3 Stabilization of Fishbone Instabilities with ECRH
2.4.6.4 Formation of an Internal Transport Barrier with NBI in Advanced Tokamak Operation
2.4.6.5 First Plasma in HL-2 M
2.4.7 START
2.4.7.1 High Toroidal Beta at Low and Extremely Low Aspect Ratio
2.4.8 GLOBUS-M and GLOBUS -M2
2.4.8.1 H-Mode in Spherical Tokamaks
2.4.8.2 High Current and LHCD Experiments in Globus-M2
2.4.9 QUEST
2.4.9.1 Steady-State 6900 s Discharges in a Spherical Tokamak with a Hot Wall
2.4.9.2 Fully Non-inductive Current Ramp Up with Second Harmonic ECRH in a Spherical Tokamak
2.4.10 General Fusion´s Spector and SLiC
2.4.10.1 Spector
2.4.10.2 SLiC (Spector Lithium Configuration)
2.4.10.3 Fusion Plant Construction Announced
2.5 Design Space Catalogue of Tokamak Operational Scenarios
2.5.1 Vacuum Vessel and Component Conditioning
2.5.2 Plasma Start-Up and Current Ramp
2.5.3 MHD Equilibrium and High Beta
2.5.4 Particle and Energy Confinement and H-Modes
2.5.5 Heating, Current Drive and Their Role in Controlling Instabilities and Disruptions
2.5.6 Divertor Radiation and Plasma-Wall Interaction
2.5.7 Plasma Diagnostics and Machine Control
2.5.8 High Power Tritium Burning and Alpha Particle Heating
2.5.9 Long Pulse and Steady-State Operation
2.6 Tokamak Simulation Codes
2.6.1 Plasma Simulation and Design Codes
2.6.2 Integrated Workflows of Simulation Codes
2.6.3 Systems Engineering Codes
2.7 Component Design Options
2.8 Integration of the Systems Design Space
References
Part II: High-Current Tokamaks
Chapter 3: Doublet III/DIII-D and 1-2 MA Tokamaks: Robustness and Adaptation
3.1 Systems Analysis Strategy for Doublet III/DIII-D
3.1.1 Overall Strategy
3.1.2 Application of Checklist 1.2
3.1.3 Doublet III Form and Function Choices
3.1.3.1 Toroidal Field Coils
3.1.3.2 Poloidal Field Coils and Vacuum Vessel
3.1.3.3 Vacuum Vessel
3.1.3.4 Power Supplies and Coil Connections
3.1.3.5 Plasma Control and Shaping
3.1.3.6 JAERI Collaboration and Auxiliary Heating
3.2 Doublet III Experiments and Scenarios
3.2.1 MHD Equilibrium
3.2.2 Plasma Energy Confinement in Different MHD Equilibria
3.2.3 Doublet III Scenarios
3.2.3.1 High-Z Limiters and Wall Conditioning
3.2.3.2 High Elongation Single Axis Plasmas
3.2.3.3 Expanded Boundary Divertor
3.2.3.4 H-mode in Expanded Boundary
3.2.3.5 High Toroidal Beta
3.2.3.6 Giant Sawtooth Instability
3.3 DIII-D Design and Results
3.3.1 Upgrade of Doublet III to DIII-D
3.3.2 DIII-D Scenarios
3.3.2.1 DIII-D Initial Results and VH-Mode
3.3.2.2 Double Barrier H-mode
3.3.2.3 Partial Current Drive with Bootstrap, NBI and ECRH
3.3.2.4 Instability Control of Neoclassical Tearing Modes with ECCD
3.3.2.5 Plasma Disruption Avoidance and Pellet Mitigation
3.3.2.6 Small Angle Slot (SAS) Divertor with Resonant Magnetic Perturbation (RMP) Suppression of Edge Localized Mode (ELM)
3.3.2.7 Wide Pedestal ITER-Relevant QH-mode Scenario
3.3.2.8 Radiating Divertor Combined with Steady-State High βN
3.3.2.9 Super H-mode
3.3.2.10 Steady-State Current-Drive Advanced Tokamak Fusion Reactor
3.3.2.11 High Beta of 12.5% at Low Aspect Ratio
3.4 DIII-D Systems Analysis of Emergent Properties and Tradeoffs
3.4.1 Analysis of Emergent Properties
3.4.2 Systems Control
3.4.3 Fault-Tolerance
3.4.4 Modularity
3.4.5 Decoupling
3.4.6 Resistance
3.4.7 Avoidance
3.4.8 Resource Demands
3.4.9 Robustness
3.4.10 Fragility
3.4.11 Performance and Metrics
3.5 Asdex-Upgrade
3.5.1 Asdex-Upgrade Design
3.5.2 Asdex-Upgrade Scenarios
3.5.2.1 Plasma Initiation and Divertor Control with Shaping Coils Outside the Toroidal Field Coil
3.5.2.2 NBI and ECCD
3.5.2.3 High Power Plasma Exhaust Detachment with Argon and Divertor x-Point Radiating Zone
3.5.2.4 ITER Baseline (IBL) and (IBL-A) Simulations
3.5.2.5 Preparing the Physical Basis of ITER Operations and DEMO Scenarios
3.5.3 Robustness and Performance Analysis
3.6 Alcator C and C-Mod
3.6.1 Alcator and Alcator C-Mod Design
3.6.2 Alcator C and C-Mod Scenarios
3.6.2.1 Operating Alcator-C at Very High Toroidal Field with Pellet Injection to Reach the Lawson Criteria
3.6.2.2 C-Mod Reactor-Relevant Vessel Wall High-Z Material, Cleaning and Vertical Plate Divertor
3.6.2.3 Reactor-Relevant Power Handling and Operation of Vertical Target Divertor
3.6.2.4 EDA (Enhanced Dα) H-mode
3.6.2.5 Improved Confinement (I-mode) ELM-Free H-mode
3.6.2.6 ICRH, Flow Drive and Impurity Control with a Field Aligned (FA) Antenna
3.6.2.7 LHCD at Medium and High Plasma Densities
3.6.2.8 Disruption Mitigation Using Massive Gas Injection (MGI)
3.6.3 Robustness and Performance Analysis
3.7 FTU
3.7.1 FTU Design
3.7.2 FTU Scenarios
3.7.2.1 Stabilization and Suppression of Post-disruption Runaway Electron Beams
3.7.2.2 Tin Liquid Limiter (TLL) Power Handling for Divertors
3.7.2.3 TM Stabilization by Pellet Injection or ECH
3.7.3 Robustness and Performance Analysis
3.8 Spherical Tokamaks MAST, MAST-Upgrade and STEP
3.8.1 MAST Design and Results
3.8.2 Energy Confinement in MAST
3.8.3 Robustness and Performance Analysis
3.8.4 MAST Upgrade First Results
3.8.5 STEP
3.9 Spherical Tokamaks NSTX and NSTX-U
3.10 Low Aspect Ratio with High Vertical Elongation ST-40
3.11 Discussion of the Robustness and Performance of 1-2 MA Tokamaks
References
Chapter 4: TCV: A Case Study in Systems Forward Engineering of a MA Tokamak
4.1 Systems Forward Engineering Strategy for TCV
4.1.1 Case Study Strategy
4.1.2 TCV Capabilities
4.2 Systems Approaches to the Design of TCV
4.2.1 Suitability of TCV as a Case Study in Systems Approaches
4.2.2 Systems Forward Engineering - Getting Started
4.2.3 Predecessor Tokamak TCA Design
4.2.4 TCA Technical Choices
4.2.5 TCV First Goals and Design Options
4.2.5.1 First TCV Goals
4.2.5.2 The First TCV Design Option
4.2.5.3 Revised TCV Goals
4.3 Review and Prioritize Goals and Evaluate Variants for TCV
4.3.1 Systems Review Process in Early Stages and Prioritizing Goals
4.3.2 Scenarios for TCV from the Tokamak Design Space and Revised Priorities
4.3.3 The Intermediate Design Research Areas for TCV
4.3.4 Tokamak Systems Basic Parameters for Further Design
4.3.5 TCV Systems Architecture
4.3.5.1 Maximum Elongation
4.3.5.2 Machine Size, Toroidal Field and Plasma Current
4.3.5.3 Poloidal Coils
4.3.5.4 Vacuum Vessel
4.3.5.5 Budget and Buildings
4.3.6 Scoping the Systems for Creating High Current and Highly Elongated Plasmas
4.3.7 Power supply Requirements for Shaping and Controlling Plasma
4.3.7.1 MHD Equilibrium Calculations
4.3.7.2 Plasma Shaping and Control
4.3.7.3 Stabilization of Vertical Instability at High Growth Rate
4.3.7.4 Plasma Disruptions
4.3.8 Phase I Proposal and Euratom Review
4.3.9 Phase II Proposal to Euratom
4.3.9.1 MHD Stability Calculations and Revised Design
4.3.9.2 Implementing Other Review Recommendation
4.4 TCV Top Level Robustness Properties and Tradeoffs
4.4.1 Robustness
4.4.2 Fragility
4.4.2.1 Plasma breakdown and Current Rise with Continuous Vacuum Vessel
4.4.2.2 Vertical instability of Highly Elongated Plasmas
4.4.2.3 Need for Auxiliary Heating
4.5 TCV Final Design for Construction
4.5.1 Phase II Committee Review and Approval
4.5.2 Systems Level Considerations for Final Design and Construction
4.5.3 TCV System Level Final Design for Construction
4.5.4 Implementation
4.6 TCV Subsystem-Elements Descriptions and Robustness Analysis
4.6.1 Toroidal Field Coils, Power Supplies and Systems Analysis
4.6.1.1 Toroidal Field Coils
4.6.1.2 Power Supplies
4.6.1.3 Systems and Robustness Analysis
4.6.2 Poloidal Field Coils, Power supplies and Systems Analysis
4.6.2.1 Poloidal Coils
4.6.2.2 Power Supplies
4.6.2.3 Plasma Disruption Analysis
4.6.2.4 Fast in-Vessel Coils and Power Supplies for High Frequency Stabilization
4.6.2.5 Systems and Robustness Analysis
4.6.3 Flywheel Motor Generator and Systems Analysis
4.6.3.1 Motor Generator and Transformers
4.6.3.2 System and Robustness Analysis
4.6.4 Vacuum Vessel and Vacuum Equipment Systems Analysis
4.6.4.1 Vacuum Vessel
4.6.4.2 Systems and Robustness Analysis
4.6.5 Management of Procurement, Construction and Initial Testing
4.6.6 Auxiliary Heating Upgrades for TCV
4.6.7 Machine and Plasma Control and Data Acquisition
4.7 TCV Scenarios
4.7.1 High Elongation Plasmas and Ohmic H-Modes
4.7.2 Fully Digital Plasma Control
4.7.3 Fully Non-inductive Steady-State Plasmas with Electron Cyclotron Current Drive
4.7.4 Limits of Operating Space for High Plasma Elongation
4.7.5 High Power Electron Cyclotron Heating and Bootstrap Current Drive
4.7.6 Electron Internal Transport Barriers with EC Current Drive
4.7.7 H-mode Regimes with Ohmic Heating in H, D and He
4.7.8 Neutral Beam Current Drive and Heating
4.7.9 Multi-machine ITER Scenario to Maximize Edge Pedestal Height
4.7.10 Exhaust Control and Detachment in Snowflake and Super-X Divertors
4.7.11 Vessel Wall Conditioning with ECRH
4.7.12 Real Time Plasma Control Systems
4.7.13 Disruption Avoidance by Real-Time Locked Mode Prevention with ECCD
4.7.14 Elimination of Disruption Runaway Electron Current with Current Ramp Down
4.7.15 High-βN Fully Noninductive Scenarios with Combined EC and NBI
4.7.16 Reduced Heat Flux with Grassy ELM´s at High Triangularity
4.7.17 High-Shared-Flux Doublet Configuration with Separate Lobe ECRH
4.7.18 Removable Gas Baffles Separating Main and Divertor Chambers
4.8 Lessons Learned About Systems Forward Engineering
References
Chapter 5: JET - World´s Largest Tokamak and its d-t Fusion Experiments Plus TFTR´s
5.1 Systems Analysis Strategy for JET
5.2 JET Goals, Machine Parameters and Systems Integration
5.2.1 JET Design and Systems Architecting of Highest Level Systems
5.2.2 Elements of Next Level Systems, Form Relationships and Design Choices
5.2.2.1 Poloidal Coils and Iron Core Transformer Architecture
5.2.2.2 Toroidal Field Coils
5.2.2.3 Vacuum Vessel
5.2.2.4 Radiation Shielding from 14 MeV Neutrons
5.3 Operational and Experimental Evidence of Success in Machine Operation
5.3.1 Initial JET Operation Pre-1989
5.3.1.1 High Triple Product H-mode Operation at 4.5 MA
5.3.1.2 High Power Neutral Beam Heating
5.3.2 High Performance Plasmas in Preparation for Tritium Experiments
5.3.2.1 Hot-ion H-mode at 5 MA Plasma Current
5.3.2.2 High Fusion Triple Product nD(0)τETi(0) in Hot-ion H-mode
5.3.2.3 Beta Limits with Be Limiters and Gettering in H-modes
5.3.2.4 Possible Confinement Degradation from Fishbone Instabilities
5.3.2.5 High Performance with Plasma Current at 7 MA on Be Limiters
5.3.2.6 High Confinement ELM-Free H-mode and Impurity Generation
5.3.3 Analysis of Emergent Properties of Systems and Robustness Against Faults
5.3.3.1 Major Fragility - Short Circuits in Three Toroidal Field Coils
5.3.3.2 Robustness Analysis
5.3.3.3 Overview of JET Performance Metrics
5.4 Neutron and Fast Particle Diagnostics
5.4.1 JET Plasma Diagnostics and the Role of Fusion Product Diagnostics
5.4.2 Fusion Products and Diagnostics
5.4.2.1 Fusion Reactions in JET
5.4.2.2 Diagnostics Overview
5.4.3 Measurements with Neutron and Fast Particle Diagnostics
5.4.3.1 Overview of Measurements
5.4.3.2 Neutron Profile Monitor Measurements
5.4.3.3 The 2-D Measurements of 2.5 MeV Neutron Sawtooth Crashes
5.4.3.4 Neutral Beam Injection of 120 keV Helium
5.4.3.5 Thermal Plasma Neutron Production and Ion Thermal Diffusivity
5.4.3.6 Gamma Ray Emission from High Fusion Power from RF Accelerated Helium-3 (3He) Minority Fuel Ions
5.4.3.7 High Energy Gamma Rays from Runaway Electrons
5.4.3.8 Neutron Spectrometry Systems
5.4.4 Robustness Analysis of Neutron and Fast Particle Diagnostics
5.5 Preliminary Tritium Experiments (PTE)
5.5.1 Systems Design of Preliminary Tritium Experiments (PTE)
5.5.1.1 Preliminary Scoping of PTE
5.5.1.2 Operation Limitations and Hardware Upgrades for PTE
5.5.1.3 Diagnostics and Performance Estimates
5.5.1.4 Target Plasmas for PTE
5.5.2 Preliminary Deuterium-Tritium Fusion Experiments (PTE)
5.5.2.1 Pure Deuterium Hot-ion H-mode Target Plasma for Tritium Experiments
5.5.2.2 Neutral Beam Injection of 1%T in One PINI in Hot-ion H-mode
5.5.2.3 Fusion Power of 1.7 MW from Neutral Beam Injection of 100% Tritium in 2 PINIs into Hot-ion H-mode
5.5.2.4 Neutron Emission Profile Measurements During PTE
5.5.2.5 Particle and Energy Transport During PTE
5.5.2.6 Ion Cyclotron Emission Measurements During PTE
5.5.2.7 Release of Tritium from the Carbon First Wall of JET During PTE
5.6 Full Power Deuterium-Tritium Experiments (DTE1)
5.6.1 JET Optimization in Preparation for DTE1
5.6.2 Machine Upgrades
5.6.2.1 Pumped Divertor and Vessel Interior Upgrade
5.6.2.2 Neutron Diagnostics Upgrades
5.6.3 Experimental Preparation for Q = 1 Energy Breakeven Experiments at High Power
5.6.4 Systems Approaches to Planning Full Power Deuterium-Tritium Fusion Experiments
5.6.4.1 DTE1 Goals and Constraints
5.6.4.2 Preparing, Assembling and Prioritizing Experimental Proposals
5.6.4.3 Proposed Experiments NOT Selected
5.6.4.4 Reliability and Margins in Neutron Budget and Time
5.6.4.5 Prerequisites for the High Neutron Yield Programme
5.6.4.6 Order of Experiments
5.6.4.7 d-d Simulations and Development During DTE1
5.6.4.8 Disruptions, Instabilities, Damage
5.6.4.9 Planning of the d-d Phase Before DTE1 Begins
5.6.4.10 The 1996 d-d Programme
5.6.4.11 Conclusions on DTE1 Proposal
5.6.5 Deuterium-Tritium High Power Nuclear Fusion Operational Scenarios and Results in JET
5.6.5.1 Trace Tritium Experiments in DTE1
5.6.5.2 D-T Fusion Power of 16.1 MW and Q 1 in Hot-ion H-modes with Divertor in DTE1
5.6.5.3 Alpha Particle Heating of 1.3 MW in DTE1
5.6.5.4 Internal Transport Barriers and High Triple Product in DTE1
5.6.5.5 Bulk Ion Heating of Deuterium and Q 0.22 with ICRH in DTE1
5.6.5.6 Bulk Ion Heating with 3He Minority ICRH in DTE1
5.6.5.7 Second Harmonic Tritium ICRH in DTE1
5.6.5.8 Combined NBI and ICRH in ELM-free H-modes During DTE1 Giving Record Stored Energy and Fusion Power
5.6.5.9 Tritium Recycling, Retention and Clean-up in DTE1
5.7 Post-DTE1 Operation in JET - Preparation for DTE2
5.7.1 Planning for DTE2 Experiments in JET
5.7.2 Extrapolated Baseline Scenario
5.7.3 Extrapolated Hybrid Scenario at High Normalized Beta
5.7.4 Completed Preparations for d-t Experiments
5.7.5 Successful DTE2 Operation
5.8 Fusion Power Experiments in TFTR
5.8.1 Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) Design
5.8.2 TFTR Experimental Results
5.8.2.1 Supershots with Maximum Fusion Power
5.8.2.2 Alpha Prticle Physics
5.8.2.3 Tritium Retention
5.8.3 Robustness and Fragility Analysis
References
Chapter 6: Superconducting and Long-Pulse Tokamaks for Prototyping Reactor Technology
6.1 Systems Analysis Strategy for Prototyping Reactor Subsystems
6.1.1 Goals and Systems Architecture Choices for Superconducting and Steady-State Tokamaks
6.1.1.1 Parameters of Superconducting Toroidal Field Coil Tokamaks, Without and With Normal Conductor Poloidal Field Coils
6.1.2 Key Elements and Constraints of Steady-State Operation
6.2 Design Space for Superconducting and Long-Pulse Tokamaks
6.2.1 Goals for Using the Design Space
6.2.2 Technical Aspects of Superconducting Magnets
6.2.3 Systems Architecture of Choices and Trade-Offs
6.2.3.1 Magnetic Field Coils
6.2.3.2 Superconductor Material, Maximum Field and Coil Temperature
6.2.3.3 Plasma Heating and Current Drive Pulse Length
6.2.3.4 Low Voltage Start-Up
6.2.3.5 Ohmic Heating Transformer Coil and Aspect Ratio
6.2.3.6 Plasma Shape and Divertor
6.2.3.7 Reactor Conditions, Plasma Facing Components and Divertor
6.2.3.8 High Performance Versus Long Pulse Operation
6.3 HT-7 (Formerly T-7)
6.3.1 Design
6.3.2 Scenarios
6.3.2.1 Long Pulse Operation of 240 s with LHCD
6.3.2.2 Long Pulse Operation of 400 s with Cooled Belt Limiter
6.3.3 Robustness, Fragility and Relevance to Steady-State Operation
6.4 TRIAM-1M
6.4.1 Design
6.4.2 Scenario: 5 h Fully Non-inductive Steady-State Operation with LHCD
6.4.3 Robustness, Fragility and Relevance to Steady-State Operation
6.5 T-15
6.5.1 Design
6.5.2 Scenario: Ohmic Heating in T-15 and Test of Superconducting Windings
6.5.3 Robustness, Fragility and Relevance to Steady-State Operation
6.6 Tore-Supra, Later WEST, a Case Study of Prototyping a Superconducting Tokamak Reactor
6.6.1 Design
6.6.1.1 Toroidal Field Coils and Vacuum Vessel
6.6.1.2 Poloidal Field Systems
6.6.2 Scenarios
6.6.2.1 High Power, 400 s Long Pulse in Circular High Current Plasma with LHCD and 1 GJ Injected
6.6.2.2 Long Pulse Operation with LHCD and ECCD Synergies
6.6.2.3 Long Pulse 120 s High Confinement Limiter Operation with Combined ICRH and LHCD
6.6.3 Robustness, Fragility and Relevance to Steady-State Operation
6.7 WEST (Tungsten {Symbol ``W´´} Environment in Steady-State Tokamak)
6.7.1 Design
6.7.2 Scenario: Plasma and Impurity Confinement in a Long Pulse, High Power, Tungsten Divertor Environment
6.7.3 Robustness, Fragility and Relevance to Steady-State Operation
6.8 SST-1 (Steady-State Superconducting Tokamak)
6.8.1 Design
6.8.2 Scenario: LHCD
6.8.3 Robustness, Fragility and Relevance to Steady-State Operation
6.9 EAST (Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak)
6.9.1 Design
6.9.2 Scenarios
6.9.2.1 Long Pulse of 100 s with ECRH and LHCD in H-mode
6.9.2.2 Plasma-Wall Interaction Control for H-mode Operation over 100 s with an ITER-Like Tungsten Divertor
6.9.2.3 Improved Long Pulse Scenario Development
6.9.3 Robustness, Fragility and Relevance to Steady-State Operation
6.10 KSTAR (Korea Superconducting Tokamak Advanced Research)
6.10.1 Design
6.10.2 Scenarios
6.10.2.1 Long Pulse 30 s H-mode Without ELM-Crash Using Control of Resonant and Non-resonant Modes
6.10.2.2 Advanced Scenarios Toward Fusion Reactors
6.10.3 Robustness, Fragility and Relevance to Steady-State Operation
6.11 JT-60-U (Japan Tokamak 60 m3 Plasma: Upgraded JT-60)
6.11.1 JT-60-U Design and Relevance to JT-60SA
6.11.2 Scenarios
6.11.2.1 Steady-State Advanced Tokamak Operation for 60 s
6.11.2.2 Resolution of Physics and Auxiliary Heating Issues for ITER and JT-60SA
6.11.2.3 Plasma Formation Without an Ohmic Heating Solenoid
6.11.2.4 Plasma Heating and Current Drive by High Energy Negative Ion Neutral Beam Injection
6.11.2.5 Ferritic Insertion for Reduction of Toroidal Magnetic Field Ripple
6.11.2.6 Highest Fusion Triple Product in a Steady-State ELMy H-mode
6.11.3 Robustness, Fragility and Relevance to Steady-State Operation
6.12 JT-60SA (JT-60 Super Advanced)
6.12.1 Design
6.12.2 Commissioning Until Superconducting Coil Connector Fault
6.12.3 Robustness, Fragility and Relevance to Steady-State Operation
6.13 Summary Evaluation of Robustness and Fragility in Prototyping Fusion Reactor Subsystems
6.13.1 Plasma Start-Up and Current Drive
6.13.2 Resistance to Disruptions
6.13.3 True Steady-State Operation
6.13.4 Long Term Gas Inventory
6.13.5 ITER
References
Part III: Prototype Tokamak Fusion Reactors
Chapter 7: ITER: A Fusion Proto-Reactor and its Large Scale Systems Integration
7.1 Systems Analysis Strategy for the ITER Tokamak
7.1.1 Overall Systems Analysis Strategy
7.1.2 ITER Goals
7.1.3 ITER Top Level Parameters and Scoping Comparisons
7.1.4 Systems Engineering Approaches Used in ITER Design and Construction
7.2 Review of Top Level Systems Architecture and Innovations
7.2.1 Overall Systems Architecture
7.2.2 Innovation
7.3 Plasma with Heating and Current Drive
7.3.1 Design Choices
7.3.1.1 Plasma Properties and Confinement
7.3.1.2 MHD Equilibrium and Vertical Stability
7.3.1.3 Alpha and Auxiliary Heating, and Current Drive
7.3.1.4 MHD Instability
7.3.1.5 Plasma Start-Up
7.3.1.6 Plasma Performance Simulations
7.3.2 Robustness, Fragilities and Opportunities
7.3.2.1 Low Power Density and Low Direct Ion Heating
7.3.2.2 Low Voltage Start-Up
7.3.2.3 Large Distance from Plasma to Poloidal Field Coils and Disruptions
7.3.2.4 Long Pulse Operation
7.4 Detailed Subsystem Design and Emergent Properties
7.4.1 Instability Coils
7.4.1.1 Design Choices
7.4.1.2 Robustness, Fragilities and Opportunities
7.4.2 In-Vessel Diagnostics
7.4.2.1 Design Choices
7.4.2.2 Robustness, Fragilities and Opportunities
7.4.3 Plasma Facing Components and Neutron Shield
7.4.3.1 Design Choices
7.4.3.2 Robustness, Fragilities and Opportunities
7.4.4 Test Tritium Breeding Modules (TBM)
7.4.4.1 Design Choices
7.4.4.2 Robustness, Fragilities and Opportunities
7.4.5 Divertor
7.4.5.1 Design Choices
7.4.5.2 Robustness, Fragilities and Opportunities
7.4.6 Vacuum Vessel and Disruption Mitigation
7.4.6.1 Design Choices
7.4.6.2 Robustness, Fragilities and Opportunities
7.4.7 Superconducting Magnetic Coils
7.4.7.1 Design Choices
7.4.7.2 Robustness, Fragilities and Opportunities
7.4.8 Auxiliary Heating and Current Drive
7.4.8.1 Design Choices
7.4.8.2 Robustness, Fragilities and Opportunities
7.4.9 Diagnostics and Control for Plasma and Neutrons
7.4.9.1 Design Choices
7.4.9.2 Robustness, Fragilities and Opportunities
7.4.10 Balance of Plant Including Power Systems, Cooling, Refrigeration and Tritium Processing
7.4.10.1 Design Choices
7.4.10.2 Robustness, Fragilities and Opportunities
7.5 Systems Aspects of Construction and Operation
7.5.1 Systems Aspects of Machine Assembly and Commissioning
7.5.2 Systems Integration of Construction and Operation
7.5.3 Preparation for Assembly and Commissioning
7.5.4 Robustness and Fragilities of the Construction Process
7.5.5 Research Plans to Fulfil Goals
7.5.6 Robustness and Fragilities of Physics Research Programme
7.6 Conclusions and Lessons for Future Machines
7.6.1 Conclusions on Systems Approaches
7.6.2 Lessons for Future Machines
References
Chapter 8: Demonstration Tokamak Fusion Reactors and Their Systems Approaches
8.1 Systems Strategy for Demonstration Tokamak Reactors
8.1.1 Identify Goals and Essential Elements of a Fusion Reactor
8.1.2 Paths to an ``ITER-based´´ Reactor
8.1.3 Key Choices for Neutronics and Reactor Parameters
8.1.3.1 Breeding Blanket and Shielding
8.1.3.2 Divertor Optimization
8.1.4 Use Systems Codes to Develop Design Analysis Methods
8.1.4.1 General Systems Code SysML
8.1.4.2 Process
8.1.4.3 SYCOMORE
8.1.4.4 Systems Design Efficiency and BLUEPRINT
8.1.4.5 MIRA
8.2 The EU DEMO and Planning Major Steps for Designing a Fusion Reactor - Case Study
8.2.1 Use of Systems Approaches in the Staged Design Approach in Europe
8.2.2 Application of Systems Codes
8.2.3 Systems Design Point Studies, Sensitivities and Trade-Offs
8.2.3.1 Peak Toroidal Field at the Coils
8.2.3.2 Wall-Plug Efficiency of Heating and Current Drive for Steady-State
8.2.3.3 Plasma Elongation and Aspect Ratio
8.2.4 Systems Integration and Key Design Issues
8.2.5 Fusion Blanket and Shield Thickness for DEMO
8.2.6 Systems Management Structures
8.2.7 Robustness and Fragilities
8.3 Japan Demo and Fusion Reactor Designs and Their Variations
8.3.1 Current Japan DEMO Design
8.3.2 Robustness of Japan DEMO Current Design
8.3.3 Japan DEMO Designs and Options in Systems Architecture
8.3.4 Summary of Previous Design Variants
8.4 China Fusion Engineering Test Reactor (CFETR)
8.4.1 Two Phase Design
8.4.2 Tritium Fuel Cycle Studies for CFETR
8.4.3 Toroidal Field Coils
8.5 Korea K-DEMO
8.5.1 A High Field Reactor
8.5.2 Fragility - Cyclotron/Synchrotron Radiation
8.6 USA DEMO and Fusion Reactors
8.6.1 A High Elongation Fusion Reactor
8.6.2 Water or Liquid Nitrogen Cooled Toroidal Field Coil Reactors
8.6.3 Advanced Tokamak Reactors
8.7 Large Scale DEMOs - Robustness and Fragilities
8.7.1 Common Features of Large Scale DEMOs
8.7.2 Robustness Summary for Large DEMO Machines
8.8 Very High Magnetic Field Reactors
8.8.1 SPARC (Soonest/Smallest Private-Funded Affordable Robust Compact)
8.8.2 ARC (Affordable Robust Compact)
8.8.3 Innovations Required for Very High Field Reactor
8.8.4 Fragilities of Very High Field Tokamaks
8.9 Compact Spherical Tokamak Fusion Reactors
8.9.1 ST-135 and STEP (Spherical Tokamak for Energy Production)
8.9.2 USA Sustained High-Power Density (SHPD) Tokamak Facility
8.9.3 Robustness of Spherical Tokamak Reactors
8.9.4 Fragilities of Spherical Tokamak Reactors
8.9.5 A Pulsed Reactor Concept Using Coaxial Helicity Injection
8.10 Summary
References
Part IV: Helical, Linear and Inertial Fusion Reactor Concepts
Chapter 9: Helical Fusion Reactor Concepts
9.1 Introduction to the Stellarator and Heliotron Families
9.1.1 Systems Analysis Strategy
9.1.2 Magnetic and Coil Configuration
9.1.3 Early History of Stellarator Development
9.1.4 Required Properties of Stellarator Fields
9.1.5 Main Stellarator Configurations and Design Space Options
9.1.6 MHD Equilibrium and Stability
9.1.7 Particle and Energy Transport
9.1.8 Symmetry and Stellarator Design Space Optimization Criteria
9.1.9 Coil Errors and Tolerances
9.2 Wendelstein7-AS (W7-AS)
9.2.1 W7-AS Systems Architecture and Technical Choices
9.2.2 W7-AS Stellarator Field Optimization
9.2.3 W7-AS Operational Scenarios
9.2.3.1 Fast Particle Confinement Improvement with Mirror Ratio
9.2.3.2 Successful Island Divertor Operation and High Density H-mode (HDH)
9.2.3.3 Turbulent Transport and Confinement
9.2.3.4 Improved Confinement Regimes
9.2.3.5 Operational Limits: Density, Temperature, Confinement, Beta
9.2.4 W7-AS Goals Achieved, Robustness and Fragilities
9.3 Wendelstein 7-X: A Case Study in Systems Forward Engineering of a Superconducting Helias
9.3.1 Systems Analysis Strategy for the Superconducting W7-X Helias as a Case Study
9.3.1.1 Case Study Strategy
9.3.1.2 W7-X Capabilities
9.3.1.3 Systems Forward Engineering: Getting Started
9.3.2 Systems Approaches to the Design and First Goals of W7-X
9.3.3 Review and Prioritize Goals and Evaluate Variants for W7X
9.3.3.1 Systems Review Process in Early Stages
9.3.3.2 Prioritizing Goals and Making Choices of Systems Architecture
9.3.3.3 Superconducting Coil Considerations
9.3.3.4 Basic Systems Parameters for Further Design
9.3.3.5 Phase I (1991) and Phase II (1995) Proposals and Project Start
9.3.4 W7-X Revised Proposal, Robustness and Tradeoffs
9.3.5 W7-X Final Design for Construction
9.3.6 Procurement, Construction, and Initial Testing of W7-X
9.3.7 W7-X Operational Scenarios
9.3.7.1 Wall Conditioning for High Performance
9.3.7.2 High Density and High Stellarator Triple Product with ECRH
9.3.7.3 Stellarator Optimization
9.3.7.4 Island Divertor Operation
9.3.8 W7-X Metrics and Performance
9.4 Heliotron-E
9.4.1 Heliotron-E Systems Architecture and Technical Choices
9.4.2 Heliotron-E Operational Scenarios
9.4.2.1 High Density and High Temperature Plasmas
9.4.2.2 Currentless Plasmas Without Disruptions
9.4.2.3 High Beta Operation
9.5 Heliotron-J, a Helical Axis Configuration
9.5.1 Heliotron-J Systems Architecture and Technical Choices
9.5.2 Heliotron-J Operational Scenarios
9.6 Superconducting Large Helical Device (LHD)
9.6.1 LHD Goals, Systems Architecture and Technical Choices
9.6.2 LHD Operation Scenarios
9.6.2.1 Initial Operation
9.6.2.2 Improved Particle and Energy Confinement Regimes
9.6.2.3 Design Parameters Achieved in Hydrogen Plasmas
9.6.2.4 High Power Deuterium Plasmas and Fast Particle Studies
9.6.2.5 H-mode and Divertor Detachment
9.6.3 LHD Robustness and Fragilities
9.7 Alternative Helical Configuration Systems Architecture and Operational Scenarios
9.7.1 TJ-II Heliac
9.7.2 Model Validation in Stellarators
9.7.3 Uragan-2 M and Uragan 3-M Torsatrons
9.7.4 H-1NF Heliac
9.7.5 HSX
9.7.6 WEGA/HIDRA
9.7.7 Scyllac
9.7.8 CTH
9.7.9 NCSX
9.7.10 Stellarator Robustness and Fragilities of Alternative Architectures
9.7.11 Comparison of Stellarators and Tokamaks
9.8 Helias Fusion Reactor Concept HELIAS 5-B
9.8.1 Basic Design Considerations
9.8.2 Updated Reactor Design
9.8.3 A Systems Approach to Optimization
9.8.4 Detailed Breeding Blanket Design
9.8.5 Balance of Plant
9.8.6 Robustness and Fragilities
9.9 Heliotron Fusion Reactor Concept FFHR-d1
9.9.1 Basic Design
9.9.2 A Systems Approach to Reactor Design and Optimization
9.9.3 Use of Joints and High Temperature Superconductors
9.9.4 Helical Divertor
9.9.5 A Liquid salt Breeding Blanket
9.9.6 Robustness and Fragilities
9.9.7 A Helical Volumetric Neutron Source FFHR-b2
9.10 Prospects for Stellarators
References
Chapter 10: Linear Magnetic Traps, Field Reversal and Taylor-State Configurations
10.1 Linear Mirror Systems
10.1.1 Basic Magnetic Mirror Machine
10.1.2 Minimum-B Magnetic Wells
10.1.2.1 Phoenix II
10.1.2.2 Baseball II
10.1.2.3 2XIIB
10.1.2.4 Elmo
10.1.3 Direct Conversion and Reactor Systems Analysis
10.1.4 Tandem Mirror TMX and TMX-Upgrade
10.1.5 Tandem Mirror PHAEDRUS-B
10.1.6 Tandem Mirror GAMMA 10
10.1.7 Tandem Mirror KMAX
10.2 Mirror Fusion Test Facility (MFTF) and MFTF-B - A Case Study of Systems Forward Engineering
10.2.1 Systems Forward Engineering and Architecture in MFTF
10.2.2 First Design Improvement of MFTF, One Year Later
10.2.3 Systems Review Process in Early Stages
10.2.4 Alteration of MFTF to Tandem Mirror MFTF-B
10.2.4.1 Overall System
10.2.4.2 Axicell and Central Solenoid
10.2.4.3 Expander Region
10.2.4.4 End Plugs
10.2.4.5 Vacuum and Cryostat Systems and In-vessel Components
10.2.5 Revised Goals of MFTF-B
10.2.6 Final Construction Status Report and Project Cancellation
10.2.7 Robustness, fragilities and Implications of Cancellation
10.3 Gas Traps, Multiple Mirrors, Cusps and Field Reversal
10.3.1 Gas Dynamic Trap (GDT)
10.3.2 Multiple Mirror GOL-3 and GOL-NB
10.3.3 Cusps
10.3.3.1 Cusp with High Energy Electrons
10.3.3.2 Lockheed Martin Compact Fusion Reactor (CFR), T4 and T5
10.3.4 Tri Alpha Energy C-2U and C-2W Field Reversed Configuration
10.4 Linear Fusion Reactors and Systems Design Space
10.4.1 Physics of the Systems Architecture Design Space
10.4.2 Design-Space Building-Blocks for Systems Architecture of Linear Machines
10.4.2.1 Magnetic and Electrostatic Configurations
10.4.2.2 External Heating and Plasma Creation
10.4.3 Linear Fusion Reactors
10.4.3.1 Advanced Tandem Mirror Reactor
10.4.3.2 Gas Dynamic Multiple-Mirror Trap (GDMT) Reactor Prototype
10.4.4 Synthesis of Linear Mirror Design Space
10.5 Toroidal Versions of Linear Mirror Concepts
10.5.1 ELMO Bumpy Torus (EBT)
10.5.2 Nagoya Bumpy Torus (NBT-1 M)
10.5.3 Auto-injection Mirror
10.6 Taylor State q < 1 Torus: Spheromak and Reversed Field Pinch
10.6.1 Spheromak, Reversed Field Pinch and Taylor State
10.6.2 SSPX Spheromak
10.6.3 Reversed Field Experiment RFX-Mod and RFX-Mod2
10.6.4 MST and Reactor Studies
10.6.5 Review and Prospects for RFP
References
Chapter 11: Inertial Fusion and Magnetic Fast Pulsed Systems
11.1 Systems Analysis Strategy for Laser Inertial Confinement
11.1.1 Introduction to Inertial Confinement
11.1.2 Progress in Inertial Fusion Driver Concepts
11.1.3 Challenges for Inertial Fusion Reactor Development
11.1.4 Systems Analysis Strategy
11.2 Case Study of Architecture and Forward Engineering of NIF
11.2.1 NIF Background
11.2.2 NIF Systems Approach
11.2.2.1 Experimental Prototype Program
11.2.2.2 Systems Analysis Codes and Designs
11.2.2.3 Overall Plant Layout
11.2.2.4 Laser and Target Layout
11.2.3 NIF Beamline Systems Architecture and Design Space
11.2.4 Highly Modular and Robust Construction
11.2.5 Operation and Control Systems
11.2.6 NIF Physics Results
11.2.7 Computer Simulations of Inertial Confinement Laser and Target Interactions
11.2.8 Near Breakeven Production of 1.3 MJ of Fusion Energy
11.2.9 Laser Inertial Fusion Energy (LIFE) Reactor
11.2.10 Overall Fusion Efficiency
11.2.11 Laser Mega-Joule (LMJ) and ShenGuang III (SG-III) Large Scale Indirect Drive Lasers
11.3 Direct Drive, Fast and Shock Heating and Alternate Laser Technologies
11.3.1 PETAL
11.3.2 Direct Drive Laser Fusion with OMEGA
11.3.2.1 OMEGA Laser
11.3.2.2 Direct Drive Experiments
11.3.2.3 Shock Wave and Blast Wave Heating
11.3.3 Gekko and LFEX Lasers for Fast Ignition Realization EXperiment (FIREX)
11.3.3.1 Firex Concept
11.3.3.2 Gekko and LFEX Lasers
11.3.3.3 Fast Ignition Experiments
11.3.4 The UK Central Laser Facility (CLF) and DiPOLE
11.3.4.1 CLF
11.3.4.2 Diode Pumped Optical Laser for Experiments (DiPOLE)
11.3.5 Petawatt and Exawatt Lasers
11.3.6 Non-thermal p-11B Fusion from Picosecond Lasers
11.4 Design Space and Systems Approaches for Laser Fusion
11.4.1 Design Space for a Laser Inertial Confinement Fusion Reactor
11.4.1.1 Elements of a Design Space
11.4.1.2 Fundamental Requirements for a Laser Fusion Inertial Confinement Reactor
11.4.2 HiPER Laser Inertial Confinement Fusion Reactor Project
11.4.2.1 Baseline HiPER Design
11.4.2.2 Systems Approaches to HiPER Reactor Aspects
11.4.3 Detailed Systems Modelling of HiPER
11.4.4 The Future for Laser Fusion Reactors
11.5 Magnetic Fast Pulsed Systems
11.5.1 Dense Plasma Focus
11.5.2 Plasma-Jet-Driven Magneto-Inertial Fusion (PJMIF)
11.5.3 MagLIF Z-pinch Experiments
11.5.4 Z-pinch Fusion Reactor
11.6 Prospects and Systems Robustness of Inertial Fusion Reactors
References
Part V: Synthesis and Conclusions
Chapter 12: Synthesis and Conclusions on the Applications of Systems Approaches to Fusion Reactors
12.1 Methods Developed and Lessons Learned
12.2 Overall Systems Analysis Strategy for Comparing Concepts by Systems Architecture
12.2.1 Methods
12.2.2 Systems Strategy for Comparing Different Fusion Reactor Concepts
12.3 Progress in Existing and Planned Machines
12.3.1 Systems Level Performance Metrics: Lawson Criterion and Triple Product
12.3.2 The Cost Metric of Fusion Experiments and Reactors
12.3.3 Metrics, Scaling Laws, Systems and Predictive Codes, Innovation and Breakthroughs
12.3.4 The Central Role of ITER
12.4 Pathways Towards an Operating Fusion Reactor
12.4.1 Pathways Towards a Working Fusion Reactor for Each Concept
12.4.2 Robustness and Fragilities of Different Concepts
12.4.3 Tokamak Reactors
12.4.4 Stellarator, Helias and Heliotron
12.4.5 Mirrors, Linear Traps and Field Reversal
12.4.6 Inertial Fusion
12.5 Overall Conclusions: Optimization of Fusion Reactors by Systems Approaches
References
Glossary
Index