Sustainable Solutions for Elemental Deficiency and Excess in Crop Plants

Foreword
Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
Part I: General Aspects
1: Elemental Concentrations in Soil, Water and Air
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Soils
1.3 Elemental Concentrations in the Soil
1.4 Reasons of Concentration
1.5 Sources of Soil Pollutant
1.6 Tolerance Limits
1.7 Water
1.8 Elemental Concentrations
1.9 Common Pollutants and Their Source
1.9.1 Sediments
1.9.1.1 Source
1.9.1.2 Effects
1.9.2 Oxygen Demanding (DO) Wastes
1.9.2.1 Source
1.9.2.2 Effects
1.9.3 Industrial Waste
1.9.3.1 Source
1.9.3.2 Effects
1.9.4 Synthetic Organic and Inorganic Compounds
1.9.4.1 Source
1.9.5 Oil and Grease
1.9.5.1 Source
1.9.5.2 Effects
1.10 Air Pollution
1.11 Air Pollutants
1.11.1 Primary Air Pollutants
1.11.2 Secondary Air Pollutants
1.11.2.1 Source (Srivastava et al. 1996; Absar et al. 1996)
1.12 Dust Pollution
1.13 Asbestosis
1.14 Silicosis
1.15 Anthracnosis
References
2: Deficiency of Essential Elements in Crop Plants
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Role and Deficiency Symptoms of Essential Nutrients
2.2.1 Nitrogen (N)
2.2.2 Phosphorus (PO42-)
2.2.3 Potassium (K)
2.2.4 Sulphur (S)
2.2.5 Magnesium (Mg)
2.2.6 Zinc (Zn)
2.2.7 Iron (Fe)
2.2.8 Copper (Cu)
2.2.9 Calcium (Ca)
2.2.10 Cobalt (Co)
2.2.11 Boron (B)
2.2.12 Manganese (Mn)
2.2.13 Molybdenum (Mo)
2.2.14 Nickel (Ni)
2.2.15 Sodium
2.2.16 Chloride
2.3 Mitigating Approaches (Nutrient Management)
2.4 Future Prospective
References
3: The Toxicity and Accumulation of Metals in Crop Plants
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Accumulation of Toxic Metals in Crop Plants: Present Status
3.3 Metal Phytotoxicity and Stress Responses of Plants
3.4 Conclusions
References
4: Effect of Deficiency of Essential Elements and Toxicity of Metals on Human Health
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Functions of Essential Elements
4.2.1 Calcium
4.2.2 Phosphorus
4.2.3 Magnesium
4.2.4 Sodium
4.2.5 Potassium
4.2.6 Chloride
4.2.7 Iron
4.2.8 Zinc
4.2.9 Copper
4.2.10 Iodine
4.2.11 Selenium
4.2.12 Manganese
4.2.13 Molybdenum
4.2.14 Chromium
4.2.15 Fluoride
4.2.16 Iodine Deficiency
4.2.17 Fluoride Deficiency
4.2.18 Fluoride Endemicity in Unnao District, Uttar Pradesh, India
4.2.19 Fluoride Endemicity in Rajasthan, India
4.2.20 Arsenic Toxicity
4.3 Case Study of Bangladesh and West Bengal
4.4 Selenium Deficiency and Toxicity
4.5 Mercury Toxicity
4.6 Radiation Hazards
4.7 Urban Waste Toxicity
4.8 Industrial Waste Toxicity
4.9 Conclusion
References
Part II: Elemental Nutrition of Crop Plants
5: An Overview of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium: Key Players of Nutrition Process in Plants
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Elemental Nutrition in Plants-Historical Aspects
5.3 Nitrogen as an Essential Macronutrient Source
5.3.1 Nitrogen Requirement by Agricultural Crops
5.3.2 Nitrogen Deficiency
5.4 Phosphorus as an Essential Macronutrient Source
5.4.1 Phosphorus Requirement by Agricultural Crops
5.4.2 Phosphorus Deficiency
5.5 Potassium as an Essential Macronutrient Source
5.5.1 Potassium Requirement by Agricultural Crops
5.5.2 Potassium Deficiency
5.6 Nitrogen(p), Phosphorus (p) and Potassium-Demand and Supply
5.7 NPK Fertilizer: A Brief Overview
5.8 Conclusive Remarks
References
6: The Mechanisms of Trace Element Uptake and Transport Up To Grains of Crop Plants
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Soil as a Medium of Plant Growth and Custodian of Plant Nutrient
6.3 Mechanism of Uptake and Transport of Iron From Roots to Stem
6.4 Mechanism of Uptake and Transport of Zinc from Roots to Stem
6.5 Interactive Effect of Zinc with Iron During Uptake
6.6 Path of Transport of Trace Elements in Roots
6.6.1 Radial Transport
6.6.2 Transport of Trace Elements in Xylem and Phloem
6.7 Mineral Nutrition During Ontogeny of Plants
References
7: Biofortification of Crop Plants: A Practical Solution to Tackle Elemental Deficiency
7.1 Why Crop Biofortification Is Necessary?
7.2 Mineral Requirements in Human Nutrition
7.3 Biofortification Approaches
7.3.1 Agronomic Approaches
7.3.2 Conventional Breeding and Genetic Approaches
7.3.3 Plant Growth-Promoting Microorganisms Approaches
7.4 Is Biofortification a Solution to Tackle Elemental Deficiency?
References
8: An Overview on Management of Micronutrients Deficiency in Plants Through Biofortification: A Solution of Hidden Hunger
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Uptake and Distribution of Micronutrients in the Plants
8.2.1 Simple Diffusion
8.2.2 Facilitated Diffusion
8.3 Different Ways of Biofortification to Manage Micronutrient Deficiency in Plants
8.3.1 Agronomic Approach
8.3.1.1 Application of Fertilizer in Soil and Irrigation Water
Inorganic and Organic Fertilizers
Biofertilizers
Agronomic Fortification Through Foliar Application
8.3.2 Plant Breeding Technology
8.3.3 Application of Transgenic Method
8.4 Conclusions and Future Prospective
References
9: Biological Interventions Towards Management of Essential Elements in Crop Plants
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Essential Macronutrient
9.3 Essential Micronutrient
9.4 Soil and Depletion of Mineral Resources
9.5 Bio-Organic Fertilizer: An Introduction
9.6 Microbiome: A Potential Source of Beneficial Microorganism for Nutritional Management of Plant
9.6.1 Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria
9.6.2 Azolla Blue Green Alga Symbiosis
9.6.3 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi
9.6.4 Ectomycorrhizal Fungi
9.6.5 Nematodes
9.7 Mechanism of Uptake of Nutrients by Plant Through Beneficial Microorganism
9.7.1 Nitrogen Fixation
9.7.2 Phosphate Solubilization
9.7.3 Sequestering Iron
9.7.4 Mycorrhiza
9.8 Conclusive Remarks
References
10: Biotechnological Approaches to Enhance Crop Quality for Iron and Zinc Nutrition
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Biofortification
10.3 Genetic Engineering Studies for Biofortification of Fe and Zn
10.4 Future Prospects
References
Part III: Toxic Metals in Crop Plants
11: Toxic Metals in Crops: A Burgeoning Problem
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Metals: Nutrients or Contaminants
11.2.1 Cadmium (Cd)
11.2.2 Chromium (Cr)
11.2.3 Arsenic (As)
11.2.4 Lead (Pb)
11.2.5 Mercury (Hg)
11.3 Heavy Metals in Agriculture
11.4 Heavy Metals: Accumulation and Uptake
11.5 Heavy Metals: Effects on Growth and Development
11.6 Heavy Metals: Health Risk Assessment Indices
11.6.1 Bioconcentration Factor (BCF)
11.6.2 Pollution Load Index (PLI)
11.7 Ecological Risk Index (RI)
11.8 Different Health Risk Assessment Indices
11.9 Hazard Quotient
11.10 Daily Dietary Index
11.11 Daily Intake of Metals
11.12 Health Risk Index
11.13 Hazard Index
11.14 Incremental Lifetime Cancer Risk (ILCR)
11.15 Heavy Metals: Management in Agriculture System
11.16 Phytoremediation: A Green Solution
11.16.1 Phytoextraction
11.16.2 Phytostabilization
11.16.3 Rhizofiltration
11.16.4 Phytodegradation
11.16.5 Phytovolatilization
11.17 Source Reduction
11.18 Application of Genetic Engineering
11.19 Application of Nanoparticle Techniques
11.20 Conclusion
References
12: Heavy Metal Contamination of Environment and Crop Plants
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Heavy Metals in Environment
12.3 Transport of Heavy Metals in Crop Plants
12.4 Effects of Heavy Metals on Crop Plants
12.4.1 Effect on Growth and Pigments
12.4.2 Effect on Photosynthesis
12.4.3 Effect on Oxidative Stress
12.4.4 Effect on Macromolecule
12.5 Role of ROS as Signalling Molecule
12.6 Molecular Responses Against Heavy Metals
12.7 Conclusion and Future Perspective
References
13: Mechanism of Toxic Metal Uptake and Transport in Plants
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Metal Binding to Extracellular Exudates and Cell Wall
13.3 Metal Ions Transport Through Plasma Membrane in the Roots
13.3.1 ZIP Family (Zinc Resistance Transporter and Iron-Resistance Transporter-Like Proteins)
13.3.2 NRAMPs (Natural Resistance-Associated Macrophage Proteins) Family
13.3.3 Ctr/COPT Transporters (Copper Transporter)
13.4 Efflux Pumping at Plasma Membrane and Reduced Metals Uptake
13.4.1 P1B-ATPases
13.5 Movement of Metal Root to Shoot
13.5.1 HMA Family of Transporters
13.5.2 Multidrug and Toxic Compound Extrusion Family (MATE)
13.5.3 Oligopeptide Transporter Family
13.6 Chelation in the Cytosol
13.6.1 Phytochelatins
13.6.2 Metallothioneins (MTs)
13.6.3 Amino Acids and Organic Acids
13.7 Sequestration of Metal into Vacuole by Tonoplast Transporters
13.7.1 ABC Transporters
13.7.2 HMA Transporters
References
14: Cadmium: Bioavailability in Soils and Phytotoxicity
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Cd Bioavailability at Soil-Plant Interface
14.2.1 Organic Matter
14.2.2 pH
14.2.3 Presence of Other Ions
14.2.4 Redox Potential
14.2.5 Speciation
14.2.6 Aging
14.2.7 Root Exudations
14.3 Cadmium Toxicity in Plants
14.3.1 Morphology, Growth and Yield Responses
14.3.2 Nodulation and Nitrogen Fixation
14.3.3 Photosynthesis and Carbon Assimilation
14.3.4 Respiration
14.3.5 Plant-Water Relationships and Nutrient Uptake
14.3.6 Cd-Induced Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS): Impact on Membranes, Lipids, Proteins, and Nucleic Acids
14.3.7 Metabolic Antioxidative Defense Mechanisms: Limiting Cd-Induced ROS-Mediated Damage
14.3.7.1 Enzymatic Antioxidative Defense System
14.3.7.2 Non-enzymatic Antioxidative Defense System
α-tocopherols, Phenolics, and Flavonoids
Ascorbic Acid
Glutathione
Metallothioneins
Phytochelatins
Cysteine and Chaperones
14.3.8 Accumulation of Compatible Solutes/Osmolytes
14.4 Conclusions
References
15: Cadmium: Uptake in Plants and Its Alleviation Via Crosstalk Between Phytohormones and Sulfur
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Cd Uptake, Translocation, and Accumulation: Role of Transporters
15.2.1 ZIPs
15.2.2 ABCs
15.2.3 NRAMPs
15.2.4 CDFs
15.2.5 P-type ATPases
15.2.6 CAXs
15.2.7 Other Transporters
15.3 Alleviation of Cd Toxicity Via Crosstalk Between Phytohormones and Sulfur
15.3.1 Crosstalk Between Salicylic Acid, Sulfur, and Cd
15.3.2 Crosstalk Between Ethylene, Sulfur, and Cd
15.3.3 Crosstalk Between Brassinosteroids, Sulfur, and Cd
15.3.4 Crosstalk Between Jasmonic Acid, Sulfur, and Cd
15.3.5 Crosstalk Between Nitric Oxide, Sulfur, and Cd
15.4 Conclusions
References
16: Agronomic Management Practices to Tackle Toxic Metal Entry into Crop Plants
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Arsenic
16.2.1 Arsenic in Water and Soils
16.2.2 Arsenic in Plants
16.2.3 Arsenic Remediation by Agronomic Management
16.3 Cadmium
16.3.1 Cadmium in Water and Soils
16.3.2 Cadmium in Plants
16.3.3 Cadmium Remediation by Agronomic Management
16.4 Lead
16.4.1 Lead in Water and Soils
16.4.2 Lead in Plants
16.4.3 Lead Remediation by Agronomic Management
16.5 Mercury
16.5.1 Mercury in Water and Soils
16.5.2 Mercury in Plants
16.5.3 Mercury Remediation by Agronomic Management
16.6 Final Considerations and Perspectives
References
17: Microbial Inoculation to Alleviate the Metal Toxicity in Crop Plants and Subsequent Growth Promotion
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Microbial Resistance Towards Different Toxic Elements
17.2.1 Tolerance Towards Nutrient Over Richness
17.2.2 Resistance Towards Heavy Metal(loid)s Pollution
17.3 Bacterial Inoculation and Metal Uptake
17.3.1 Application of PGPR Microbes
17.3.2 Application of Non-PGPR Microbes
17.4 Algal and Cyanobacterial Involvement in Metal Accumulation
17.5 Fungal Inoculation and Metal Uptake
17.5.1 Role of Mycorrhizal Fungi in Toxicity Mitigation
17.5.2 Role of Non-mycorrhizal Fungi in Toxicity Mitigation
17.6 Biotransformation of Metals and Microbial Intervention
References
18: Genetic Engineering to Reduce Toxicity and Increase Accumulation of Toxic Metals in Plants
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Phytoremediation for Toxic Metals
18.2.1 Phytoextraction
18.2.2 Phytostabilization
18.2.3 Phytovolatilization
18.3 Advancements in Phytoremediation Techniques
18.3.1 Endophyte-Assisted Phytoremediation
18.3.1.1 Natural Endophytes
18.3.2 Engineered Endophytes
18.4 Phytoremediation Potential Enhancement of Plants Through Genetic Engineering Approaches
18.4.1 Genes Overexpression Encoding Metal Transporters
18.4.2 Genes Overexpression Encoding Metal Chelators
18.4.3 Strategies for Upgraded Heavy Metal Tolerance
18.4.3.1 Genes Overexpression Encoding Components of Antioxidant Machinery
18.4.4 Application of Gene Silencing in Plants to Overcome Heavy Metal Toxicity
18.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects
References