This book is the first comprehensive book in the world on co-processing of wastes as Alternative Fuels and Raw materials (AFRs) in cement kilns. It discusses how AFR from wastes can play an important role in contributing toward reducing the use of fossil fuel and costs while conserving natural resources, lowering global CO2 emissions, and reducing the need for landfills. The use of AFR in resource and energy-intensive industries is called co-processing, which is discussed in detail highlighting both advantages and disadvantages. Co-processing in cement kilns is a technology that is practiced globally on a large scale for environmentally sound and ecologically sustaining management of wastes from agricultural, industrial, and municipal sources. Considerable amount of scientific and technological advancements has been put in place while developing and implementing this technology at the cement plant operational scales. This technology is in practice for about 40 years or so and has been recommended by Basel Convention for the sustainable management of hazardous wastes and by the Stockholm Convention for the sustainable management of POPs. This technology has now been included in the waste management rules notified by the Ministry of the Government of India and has been provided as a preferred option for the management of wastes over the conventional options of incineration and landfill. The book addresses how co-processing promotes mitigation of the climate change impacts and also conservation of the natural capital in addition to building a circular economy on a large scale.
Even though this technology has received required attention and inclusion in the policy framework of many governments, its understanding and awareness with the stakeholders belonging to the academic and other relevant sections are vastly missing. The book will enhance the knowledge of co-processing technology among stakeholders involved in the implementation of the policy framework, design and engineering of the waste processing facilities to suit the co-processing operation, their operation and management, environmental consideration in implementing co-processing, operation and management of the cement plant, quality control, etc. In addition, the book will be useful for students and researchers working in this domain.
Author(s): Sadhan Kumar Ghosh, Ulhas V. Parlikar, Kåre Helge Karstensen
Publisher: Springer
Year: 2021
Language: English
Pages: 415
City: Singapore
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
About the Authors
Abbreviations
List of Figures
List of Tables
Part I Introducing the Subject
1 Introduction
1.1 Backdrop
1.1.1 Sustainable Development and Waste Management
1.2 Co-processing in 70 and 80s
1.3 Co-processing in 90s Until 2010
1.4 Co-processing in Post 2011
1.5 National Rules, Regulations, Standards Supporting Co-processing
1.6 Criteria for the Success of an Alternative Fuel Project
1.7 The Structure of This Book
References
2 Terms and Definition Related to Co-processing of Waste in Cement Kiln
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Materials-Related Terms and Definitions
2.3 Process and System-Related Terms and Definitions
2.3.1 Legal and Permission-Related Terms and Definitions
2.4 Infrastructure-Related Terms and Definitions
2.5 Stakeholder-Related Terms and Definitions
References
Part II Literature Review
3 Status Review of Research on Co-processing
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Feedstock and Raw Materials for Co-processing
3.2.1 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)
3.2.2 Spent Pot Liner Waste
3.2.3 Hazardous Waste
3.2.4 Biomass Waste
3.2.5 Tyre Waste
3.2.6 Summary of Energy Available From Different Waste Streams
3.3 Guiding Principles for Co-processing of Waste in Cement Plant
3.4 Previous Research on Co-processing and Allied Fields
3.5 Co-processing Supply Chain Issues and Challenges
3.6 Sustainable Development and Sustainability Index of Recovery (SIR) of Different Waste Treatment Technologies
3.7 Scopes of Co-processing in the Indian Cement Industry
3.8 Conclusion
References
Part III Cement: Theory, Production Technology and Operations
4 Cement Manufacturing—Technology, Practice, and Development
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Main Process Description
4.2.1 Quarrying
4.2.2 Raw Materials Preparation
4.2.3 Fuel Preparation
4.2.4 Manufacturing of Cement Clinker
4.2.5 Cement Grinding
4.2.6 Cement Dispatch
4.3 Characteristics of Material Used in Cement Production
4.3.1 Raw Mix Constituents
4.3.2 Usage of Fuels
4.4 Different Cement Manufacturing Processes
4.4.1 The Dry Process
4.4.2 The Semi-Dry Process
4.4.3 The Semi-Wet Process
4.4.4 The Wet Process
4.4.5 Vertical Shaft Kiln
4.5 Kiln Exhaust Gases
4.6 Fuel Processing
4.7 Preparation of Pozzolanic and Mineral Materials
4.8 Specific Features of Cement Production Process
4.9 Cement Production in Developing Countries
References
5 Fundamentals of Cement Chemistry, Operations, and Quality Control
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Replacement of Conventional Materials with AFRs
5.3 Chemical Analysis Associated in Cement Manufacture
5.4 Cement Chemistry and Manufacturing Principles
5.4.1 Raw Mix Parameters
5.4.2 Raw Meal to Clinker Factor
5.4.3 Clinker Composition
5.4.4 Alumina Modulus AM
5.4.5 Silica Modulus SM
5.4.6 Lime Saturation Factor (LSF)
5.4.7 Hydraulic Modulus (HM)
5.4.8 Bogue’s Formula for Cement Constituents
5.5 Operational Parameters
5.5.1 Degree of Calcination
5.5.2 Loss on Ignition
5.5.3 % Liquid
5.5.4 Sulphur to Alkali Ratio
5.5.5 Free Lime
5.5.6 Excess Sulphur (Gm SO3 / 100 Gm Clinker)
5.5.7 Blending Ratio
5.5.8 Ash Absorption
5.5.9 Kiln Feed to Clinker Factor
5.5.10 Clinker to Cement Factor
5.5.11 Insoluble Residue
5.5.12 Volumetric Loading of Kiln
5.5.13 Thermal Loading of Kiln
5.5.14 Feed Moisture Evaporation Rate
5.5.15 False Air Estimation O2 Method
5.5.16 % Excess Air
5.6 Thermal Parameters
5.7 Burner Parameters
5.8 Conclusions
References
Part IV Co-processing: Guidelines, Sustainability and Legislation
6 Guidelines on Pre-processing and Co-processing of AFRs—International Best Practices
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Important Operational Aspects
6.3 Waste Evaluations
6.4 Waste Collection, Handling, and Transport
6.5 Waste Reception and Handling
6.5.1 Management of Non-Compliant Deliveries
6.5.2 Analysing Incoming Wastes
6.5.3 Reception and Handling
6.5.4 Labelling
6.6 Waste Pre-Treatment and Pre-Processing
6.6.1 Types of AFRs
6.6.2 Pre-Processing of AFRs
6.6.3 Segregation of Waste Types for Safe Processing
6.6.4 General Design Considerations
6.6.5 Waste Storage
6.6.6 Best Available Techniques (BAT) and Best Environmental Practice (BEP)
6.6.7 Co-processing of AFRs
6.6.8 Cement Quality
6.6.9 Emission Monitoring
6.6.10 Test Burn and Performance Verification
References
7 Sustainability Considerations in Cement Manufacturing and Co-processing
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG)
7.3 Cement Sustainability Initiative (CSI)
7.4 CSI and Low-Carbon Technology Road (LCTR) Map
7.5 GCCA and Getting Numbers Right
7.6 Carbon Footprint
7.6.1 Scope 1 Emissions
7.6.2 Scope 2 Emissions
7.6.3 Scope 3 Emissions
7.7 Conservation of Natural Resources and Circular Economy
7.8 Reduction in Emissions
7.9 Water Conservation and Harvesting
7.10 Plastic Packaging
7.11 Biodiversity
7.12 Challenges Faced in Implementing Sustainability Initiatives
7.13 Sustainability and Co-processing
7.14 Conclusions
References
8 Waste Management Rules in India and Other Countries Focussing on Co-processing
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Environmental Regulation and Legal Framework in India—Constitutional Perspective
8.3 Indian Legislative Framework Related to Environmental Protection
8.4 Important Acts Related to Environment and Co-processing
8.4.1 The Indian Factories Act 1948
8.4.2 The Water Act 1974
8.4.3 The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
8.4.4 The Air Act 1981
8.4.5 Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (EPA)
8.4.6 Motor Vehicle Act 1988
8.4.7 Public Liability Insurance Act (PLIA), 1991
8.4.8 National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995
8.4.9 The National Environmental Appellate Authority Act, 1997
8.5 Important Rules Related to Environment and Co-processing in India
8.5.1 Hazardous and Other Waste (Management and Trans-Boundary Movement) Rules, 2016
8.5.2 Plastic Waste Management Rules 2016
8.5.3 Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016
8.6 Environment Policy Framework of India and Option of Co-processing
8.7 Co-processing Related Documents Published by Different Agencies Internationally
8.8 Recognition of Co-processing by Different Global Bodies
8.8.1 UNEP
8.8.2 SINTEF
8.8.3 GIZ
8.8.4 ADEME
8.8.5 MOEFCC, Government of India
8.8.6 Five-Year Plan on Ecology and Environment Protection, China Government
8.9 Co-processing Related Regulations in Different Countries
8.9.1 European Union
8.9.2 Japan
8.9.3 United States of America
8.9.4 Brazil
8.9.5 South Africa
8.9.6 China
8.10 Conclusion
References
Part V Co-processing, Pre-processing and AFR in Cement Kiln: Operations, Maintenance and Emission Controls
9 Emission Considerations in Cement Kiln Co-processing
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Different Kinds of Emissions Encountered During Thermal Treatment of Fossil Fuels and Wastes
9.2.1 Particulate Emissions
9.2.2 Acidic Emissions
9.2.3 GHG Emissions
9.2.4 VOC Emissions
9.2.5 Heavy Metal Emissions
9.2.6 Dioxin and Furan Emissions
9.2.7 Other Toxic Emissions
9.3 Description of the Cement Kiln Co-processing Operation
9.4 Impact of Co-processing on the Emissions from the Cement Kiln
9.5 Monitoring of the Emissions from the Cement Kiln
9.6 Notified Emission Standards for the Cement Kilns in Different Countries
9.7 Conclusion
References
10 Co-processing of Wastes as AFRs in Cement Kilns
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Co-processing of Wastes as AFRs in the Cement Kilns
10.3 Cement Kiln Operation
10.4 Important Aspects in Respect of Co-processing
10.4.1 TSR
10.4.2 AFR/Waste Profile
10.5 Salient Features of Cement Kiln Co-processing Technology
10.5.1 Zero Waste Technology
10.5.2 Kiln Emissions are Not Influenced
10.5.3 Acidic Gases Get Absorbed in the Calcined Lime
10.5.4 Dioxins and Furans
10.5.5 Heavy Metals Get Fixed in the Clinker
10.5.6 High Efficiency in Material and Energy Recycling
10.5.7 Reduction in Global Emissions
10.5.8 Local and Cheaper Solution for the Local Problem
10.6 Different Kinds of Wastes Suitable for Co-processing
10.6.1 Municipal Sector
10.6.2 Industrial Sector
10.6.3 Agricultural Sector
10.7 Items Which Cannot/Should Not Be Co-processed
10.7.1 Items that Can Be Co-Processed Only After Pre-processing
10.7.2 Items that Cannot Be Pre-Processed or Co-processed
10.8 Typical Examples of AFRs and Their Sources
10.9 Important Considerations for Smooth and Successful Co-processing
10.9.1 Pre-Processing of Wastes into AFRs
10.9.2 Monitoring and Control of AFRs While Co-processing
10.9.3 Emission Monitoring During Co-processing
10.9.4 Permissions for Co-processing of Wastes
10.10 Principles of Co-processing
10.11 Co-processing Technology
10.11.1 Receipt of Waste/AFR Material
10.11.2 Quality Assessment of Incoming Waste/AFR Material
10.11.3 Storage of Waste/AFR Materials
10.11.4 Pre-Processing of the AFR Material
10.11.5 Feeding the AFR Material into Kiln for Co-processing
10.11.6 Flow Schemes for Co-processing of AFRs with Different Feeding Arrangements
10.12 Other Relevant Considerations in Co-processing
10.12.1 Statutory Considerations
10.12.2 Liability Considerations
10.12.3 Sustainability Considerations
10.13 Challenges Faced in Co-processing of AFRs
10.13.1 Specifications and Availability of the AFR Materials
10.13.2 Increase in the Specific Thermal Energy Consumption
10.13.3 Impact on the Emissions from the Kiln
10.13.4 Coating in the Preheater Section of the Kiln
10.14 Conclusion
References
11 Pre-processing of Wastes into AFRs
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Permitting
11.3 Unit Operations in Pre-processing
11.3.1 Size Reduction or Shredding
11.3.2 Drying
11.3.3 Impregnation
11.3.4 Bailing
11.3.5 Segregation
11.3.6 Blending
11.4 Waste Acceptance Criteria
11.5 Salient Features of the AFR Pre-processing Facility
11.5.1 Entry Gate
11.5.2 Weigh Bridge
11.5.3 Laboratory
11.5.4 Storage Shed
11.5.5 Pre-processing Plant and Machinery
11.5.6 Environmental and Safety Provisions
11.6 Other Pre-processing Options
11.7 Production of Alternative Fuels by Pre-processing and Supply to Cement Plants
11.8 Pre-processing of Different Kinds of Wastes into AFRs
11.8.1 Pre-processing of Solid Wastes
11.8.2 Pre-processing of Sludges
11.9 Management of Drums and Other Packaging Types
11.10 Conclusion
References
12 Operational Considerations in Co-processing
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Operational Guidelines for Co-processing
12.2.1 Sustainability
12.2.2 Legal Aspects
12.2.3 Acceptance Process of Wastes and AFRs
12.2.4 Manpower
12.2.5 Operation and Management
12.2.6 Emergency Management
12.2.7 External Communications
12.2.8 Design Considerations
12.2.9 Material Receipt and Storage
12.2.10 Material Handling and Feeding Systems
12.2.11 Material of Non-Compliant Deliveries
12.2.12 Quality Control
12.2.13 Process Control for AFRs
12.2.14 Management of the Co-processing Activity
12.3 Technical Considerations for Successful Co-processing
12.3.1 Raw Mix Design
12.3.2 Alkalis, SO3, and Chloride Balance
12.3.3 Chlorine Limits in Clinker
12.3.4 Fuel Mix Design
12.3.5 Burner Momentum
12.3.6 Odour Control
12.3.7 Occupational Health Hazards and Safety Aspects
12.4 Conclusions
References
Part VI Co-processing: Business Models, Case Studies, Global Scenario, Growth and Advocacy
13 Case Studies and Business Models in Pre and Co-processing
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Economic Parameters Utilized in Co-processing Business
13.2.1 Production Cost of Clinker Manufacture
13.2.2 Transport Costs
13.2.3 Gate/Tipping Fee
13.2.4 Price of AFR
13.2.5 Savings from Use of AFR
13.2.6 Cost of the Pre-processing Facility
13.2.7 Cost of the Co-processing Facility
13.3 Principles of AFR Business
13.4 Concepts Related to Costs, Prices and Viability of Use of AFRs
13.4.1 Cost of Natural Raw Material
13.4.2 Cost of Natural Fuel
13.4.3 Operation and Management Cost
13.4.4 Resource Replacement Cost
13.5 Business Models with Pre-processing and Co-processing
13.5.1 Business Model—Elementary Co-processing Facility for Solid AFRs
13.5.2 Business Model—Elementary Pre-processing and Co-processing Facility for Solid AFRs
13.5.3 Business Model—Mechanized Co-processing Facility
13.5.4 Business Model—Mechanized Pre-processing and Co-processing Facility
13.5.5 Co-processing Facility for Liquid AFRs
13.5.6 Co-processing of Alternative Raw Materials Through Raw Meal
13.6 Conclusion
Reference
14 Global Status of Co-processing
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Status of Co-processing in Cement Industry in Different Countries
14.2.1 Country Average TSR% of Different Countries
14.2.2 Volume of Alternative Fuels Co-processed by Different Countries
14.2.3 Additional Evaluations on the Global Status of Co-processing
14.3 Country Specific Status on Co-processing
14.4 Conclusion
References
15 Journey of the Growth of Co-processing in India
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Stakeholder Engagement and Policy Advocacy
15.2.1 Stakeholder Engagement
15.2.2 Policy Advocacy
15.3 Journey—2003–2008
15.4 Journey 2008–2020
15.4.1 Demonstration of Co-processing Technology for the Sustainable Management of Wastes
15.4.2 Stakeholder Awareness and Advocacy Initiatives on Co-processing Technology
15.4.3 Notification of Rules, Emission Standards, Monitoring Protocol, and Guidelines
15.4.4 Status of Co-processing in India
15.5 Case Studies of Cement Companies
15.6 Conclusion
References
Appendix
Bibliography
